Thinking: what it is and how it happens

Thinking is the conscious perception of the surrounding world in all its manifestations, the creation of ideas about objects and phenomena, the search for connections and solutions to problems, as well as the ability to abstract.

The main characteristic features of thinking:

we perceive the world mediocrely, our knowledge of new objects and phenomena is formed through information already familiar to us;
in the process of thinking, we always define a new object or phenomenon through its general and specific characteristics in relation to other objects known to us.

The purpose of human thinking is to comprehend the information received, recognize deep connections and properties of objects and phenomena, track their cause-and-effect relationships, find solutions to problems and generate new ideas.

By its nature, human thinking is cause-and-effect - throughout life, we consciously and unconsciously create models of situations that give us the feeling that we understand how something happens. Thinking is closely interconnected with the functions of memory - we not only remember many things, phenomena and events, but thanks to the process of comprehension we can analyze, abstract and create new meanings in the process of cognition. Despite the many limitations of nature and the shortcomings of causal thinking, which Stephen Sloman and Philip Fernbach talk about in their book The Knowledge Illusion, this type of thinking is considered the basic cognitive ability of humans. [Stephen Sloman, Philip Fernbach, The Illusion of Knowledge, 2017].

Of course, in most cases in life we think in cause-and-effect patterns, however, in order to effectively understand the world around us and function in it, we can and should develop other types of thinking, and we will talk about them in our article.

How does thinking work?

The main tasks of human thinking are not only the perception of a complex and multifaceted reality, but also its interpretation, understanding the depth and interconnections of different processes.

In most cases, in the process of thinking, we use the following logical operations to work with information:

analysis;
synthesis;
abstraction;
comparison;
classification;
generalization.

This or that thought process helps us comprehend new information, compare it with the facts we know, and thereby obtain new knowledge. Thus, when carrying out a mental operation, we resort to three basic forms of thinking: concept, judgment and inference.

What is thinking

Under thinking

in psychology they understand the process of modeling reality with the help of axiomatic provisions, which underlies human cognitive activity. Thinking is a generalized and indirect way of reflecting reality.

Many scientists and philosophers of different eras have emphasized that thought processes are a distinctive feature of human consciousness and are the very essence of man. “I think, therefore I exist,” said Descartes. Pascal said that man is a “thinking reed.”

The result of thinking is thought - concept, idea, meaning. Thought processes are contrasted with the lower forms of knowledge of reality, which are also characteristic of animals - sensation and perception.

The fact that thinking is the content and essence of human activity can be understood by the fact that it surrounds us literally everywhere. Thinking underlies all human science, art, politics, and religion. Thus, many human buildings have not only a utilitarian purpose, but also a symbolic one: the architecture of the building, its location, the nature of the lighting, even the materials from which it was built have a certain significance.

Thinking has one distinctive feature compared to other forms of cognition. With its help, you can obtain information about an object that cannot be perceived directly. This is achieved through thought processes such as deduction and analogy.

Types or degrees of development of thinking

Thinking as a form of knowledge of reality is studied today by scientists from various fields of science - psychology, philosophy, cognitive science, logic, pedagogy and computer programming. Despite different approaches and interests, all of these directions are of the opinion that human thinking consists of three types or stages of cognitive development:

Subject-real thinking is the direct perception of an object.
Visual-figurative thinking is the ability to operate with images in the mind and remember an object.
Abstract or verbal-logical thinking is the ability to perform logical operations with concepts in the mind.

All these types of thinking are inherent in every person and develop in the process of growing up and learning.

A few words about the concept

If we rely on the definition that Wikipedia gives us, then thinking is the mental process of modeling the laws of the surrounding world on the basis of axiomatic provisions.

The term has many simpler definitions.

Thinking is a human cognitive activity, the result of which is a thought in the form of an idea, meaning or concept.

In neuropsychology, thinking is considered one of the highest mental functions, which has a motive, a goal, a system of actions and control.

This phenomenon began to be studied back in ancient times. Philosophers and scientists considered it not from the point of view of psychology, but from the position of philosophy and logic. Many philosophers called thinking an essential property of man. This is clearly demonstrated by Descartes’ famous saying: “I think, therefore I exist.”

This process is related to the functioning of the brain. However, a person’s ability to think in one way or another arises in the process of life experience, culture, norms of language, logic and other factors.

The stages of development of thinking can be seen in the table.

Fast and slow thinking

First of all, I would like to start with a fundamental understanding of how we think, or more precisely, with what modes of thinking each person has. Nobel laureate and cognitive psychologist Daniel Kahneman formulated a theory of how we perceive the world around us and make our own decisions using two modes of thinking - fast and slow.

Rapid, heuristic thinking, or System I, is unconscious decision making that occurs based on life experiences, instinctual and intuitive impulses. This type of thinking works automatically. But such a decision-making mode will not always lead to the right choice. Typically, a person's heuristic thinking is largely influenced by emotions, unconscious stereotypes, prejudices and biases.

On the other hand, every person possesses slow, rational thinking or System II. Unlike heuristic thinking, Daniel Kahneman calls rational thinking lazy and requiring special focus and mental effort. And it is this part that is responsible for our critical thinking. Its main rule is to take your time and analyze any information, consciously weed out possible cognitive distortions and biases. Scientists usually include the most common cognitive distortions:

affective heuristics - the use of a simplified decision-making scheme based on a strong emotional reaction;
availability heuristic - assessing the importance of a factor based on how easily you remember something;
The recency effect is a bias that causes us to overestimate the significance of events because the image is fresh in our memory;
the focus effect is that due to excessive attention to one aspect, we underestimate the importance of other relevant factors;
stereotypes are a persistent and unconscious idea of a subject, always one-sided and simplified;
The framing effect is the presentation of the same information from different angles with the deliberate goal of evoking positive or negative emotions.

Thus, any situation can be perceived using both fast and slow thinking. It all depends on how much you are ready to “turn on” your rationality [Daniel Kahneman, “Thinking Slowly, Decide Fast”, 2014].

Disorders

Thought disorders are disorders of mental activity. Violation is divided into quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative forms of the disorder are characterized by speech impairment, delayed neuropsychological development, or mental retardation.

Forms of quantitative disorder:

Mental retardation (MDD) is diagnosed in children 2-3 years old. Treatment is prescribed by a neurologist.
Oligophrenia (mental retardation is characterized by impaired development of a child from an early age). A child with oligophrenia is observed by a neurologist and psychotherapist. The goal of treatment will be socialization and learning self-care.
Dementia is a disorder of mental processes that manifests itself in adulthood or adolescence. Observation by a psychotherapist.

The speed of thinking depends on the predominance of processes in the cerebral cortex. This may be excessive excitement or, on the contrary, inhibition of mental activity:

Disruption is characterized by a rapid change of thought, in which speech becomes absurd, logic and consistency of judgments are completely absent. Speech consists of fragments of phrases quickly replacing each other. The grammar of speech is usually preserved. This disorder is inherent in schizophrenia.
Manic syndrome is characterized by accelerated speech and a simultaneous increase in psycho-emotional background. Speech is accelerated, the patient can speak “excitedly”, especially pronounced in certain topics.
Slowing down of mental processes is inherent in depressive syndrome. Distinctive features: absence of thoughts in the head, slow speech taking into account the slightest details that are not related to the essence of the issue, predominance of a depressed mood.
Thoroughness is expressed in excessive “drowning” in details. The patient has difficulty switching from one question to another, and rigidity of thinking is observed. Circumstances are inherent in diseases of the nervous system (Epilepsy).
Reasoning is revealed during long-term communication and is expressed by a tendency to teach. When a person does not answer the question posed, but talks about things that have nothing to do with him and strives to teach life to everyone with whom he begins to communicate.
Autism develops in withdrawn people. A distinctive feature of this disorder will be isolation from the world, poor orientation in society and immersion in internal experiences, which often do not correspond to the real state of affairs.
Obsessive syndrome is characterized by obsession with ideas or thoughts that the patient cannot get rid of, although he understands the absurdity. Obsessive thoughts depress a person, cause negative emotions, make them suffer, but the patient cannot cope with them. They arise against the background of persistent excitation of a part of the nervous system.
Phobias (unreasonable fear) . Various phobias arise against the background of overexertion and performing a difficult task for an adult or child. In childhood, fear of punishment gives rise to various phobias.
Extremely valuable ideas arise in adolescence. The predominance of a brightly colored emotional background indicates the development of this syndrome. This disturbance of consciousness does not cause suffering to the patient.
Delusional thinking (often accompanied by hallucinosis) is characterized by the emergence of persistent thoughts of ideas that cannot be convinced. Inference is based on a logical conclusion made on the basis of some data. This could be fear of persecution, unreasonable jealousy, self-flagellation. Delusional thinking can be dangerous for others and the patient with a pronounced syndrome. Treatment by a psychotherapist or psychiatrist is required.

Pathology of thinking often provokes disturbances in the emotional background (depression, euphoria, apathy). Any disturbance in the thought process should be observed by a specialist. If necessary, psychocorrection or drug therapy is carried out. Ignoring the pathology of thinking can lead to persistent mental pathology and cause serious problems for societies or the patient.

Diagnosis of thinking involves determining the type of excitation of brain activity and the characteristics of thought processes. The ability to solve current problems is also taken into account. The development of speech and thinking is closely related and begins at an early age.

When speech development is delayed, mental activity is also impaired. It is important to notice the deviation in time and begin training thinking, using available methods of developing thinking (game, action, training).

Logical and analytical thinking

Logical thinking is the basic human ability to prove something. It is thanks to this type of thinking that we can form our observations into a clear system of understanding knowledge about the world. The basic tools of logical thinking are:

deduction;
induction (or developmental thinking);
abduction;
associations.

Moreover, all reasoning must comply with the four laws of logic, three of which belong to Aristotle, and one to Gottfried Leibniz.

Although in his time Aristotle valued logical operations above all else, in the modern world logical thinking alone is not enough. An equally important thinking skill is analytical thinking—the ability to interpret, find patterns, and make decisions based on available information.

You can learn more about logical thinking and learn how to develop it by taking our course “Logical Thinking,” and we have a good article devoted to analytical thinking, “What is Analytical Thinking and How to Develop It.”

About the forms of logical thinking. Tools for intellectual activity

The study of forms of logical thinking is carried out by the science of the same name, part of general philosophy - logic. If we skip the boring academic aspects, there are three basic forms in total.

Concept

The concept is a certain definition of an object, phenomenon, indicating its most significant characteristics and features. A concept is the quintessence of a phenomenon, reflecting its unique properties and those qualities that distinguish an object from others. People know why an apple is an apple and not a pear and how these fruits are different. Or they understand what a car, a tree, a table, a clock is. The list goes on.

The enormous importance of this logical form of thinking is revealed when working with abstract phenomena. That is, those that do not have a material, real expression and equivalent. They cannot be touched or seen, but they are there. These are ideal matters: life, death, love, eternity and others. Not necessarily philosophical categories. For example, warm, cold. They cannot be seen, but they can be experienced experimentally. These phenomena are somewhere between abstraction and concreteness. With the help of the concept, you can introduce a variety of phenomena into circulation and work with them as if they really exist. Even if they are ideal and have no real equivalent.

From this we can conclude: logical thinking is aimed at the maximum degree of abstraction. Roughly speaking, it doesn't matter what color the apple is. It is important that this is a fruit, round in shape, with a certain taste, growing on a tree called an apple tree and the like. Only essential information. Specifics are used as needed, if necessary for the purposes of the study.

Concepts can be worked with as individual objects. They can be summarized and compared. Comparisons are usually made using visual material. To build relationships, so-called Euler circles are used. Concepts are compared by volume. A group of relationships is possible.

Complete coincidence. Usually we are talking about synonyms. Since the Russian language and Slavic languages in general are rich in synonyms, there will be many such options.
Partial match. When the volumes partially coincide, they intersect. Typically, such options are considered in a specific context. For example, musicians playing the violin. And musicians who play the cello. There will be partial overlap where there are people who play both of these instruments at once.
Some concepts are broader in scope and include groups of other concepts. This is a common case in analysis. For example, carriages and freight cars. It is clear that freight cars are a smaller concept. Since there are other types of carriages: passenger cars, etc. In the same way, you can build relationships between people and Europeans, apple trees and garden crops, the sun/stars/celestial bodies (this is a more complex relationship), and so on.
Mismatch of concepts. When there are no intersection points. Animals and soccer balls, pens and pencils. Sometimes it can be difficult to delimit the scope of concepts, especially if they are close, but not identical in meaning. It is important to adhere to terminological accuracy. Then there will be no problems in determining the ratios.

The concept as a separate form and at the same time a tool is used as a basic structural unit for broader types - judgments and inferences. Individual characteristics are not taken into account during comparison. The assessment is carried out based on the scope of the concept.

Judgment

A judgment is a statement in which something is affirmed or denied regarding an object. This is a standard definition and can be found in any academic logic textbook. What does this really mean?

A judgment is a certain relationship between an object and what is affirmed or denied about it. Concepts and various categories are used as a basis.

For example. All people are living beings.

This statement. People are a concept about which a certain phenomenon is asserted. In this case, it is stated that people are living beings. Such statements have their own principles of construction and structure. The subject, that is, that about which the affirmation/denial is given, is also called in formal logic the subject (denoted as S). And what is affirmed or denied is a predicate (denoted as P). These are not random terms, but are used to achieve an even greater degree of abstraction. You can construct this and any other statement according to a certain scheme. In this case, it will be like this: All S are (or translated into Russian - are or are) P. Other options are also possible:

no S is a P (peaches are not vegetables);
some S are P (some first-graders play football);
some Ss are not Ps (some women don't wear makeup).

The construction of a judgment scheme occurs automatically after some practice. Formalization with a clear description is needed only when working with complex materials or conducting complex research.

Judgments may be incomplete, but this is a special case.

Next, judgments are applied to obtain some new knowledge. In the context of a larger structure, inferences, propositions are called premises. That is, what is used as source material.

Inference

The most general form is new knowledge obtained from two or more premises (more is rare; usually logic is built along a chain, from one to another without mixing everything into one pile). The classic method of inference is the syllogism.

It also has its own structure. Based on two premises and a conclusion. To illustrate: all people love ducks → some ducks are acorns → therefore all people love acorns.

The example is meaningless from a content point of view. But clear in terms of form. Indirectly, through the known, a person receives previously unknown knowledge. To work with inferences, formalized types of judgments are used:

all S are P;
some S are P;
all S are P.

This syllogism is constructed according to this structure. There are some rules for obtaining information based on this principle. They are called syllogism figures. There are 4 of them in total, according to a possible combination of initial premises.

There are inferences of an implicit type, when in one sentence something is affirmed or denied twice (dilemmas). The rules for solving and obtaining new knowledge in this case will be different.

In addition to the actual three forms of logical thinking, the researcher also has other tools at his disposal:

Analysis. Decomposition of a complex phenomenon into parts. When analyzing a complex scientific article, the researcher looks for the main idea, theses, argumentation, that is, those elements that make up the text. Complex concepts can also be analyzed. Looking for signs, properties of an object, determining the most significant ones. Analysis is one of the main tools of logical thinking.
Synthesis. The opposite phenomenon. The classic option is to derive your own definition of the subject. To understand what to include in a definition, the researcher works with its properties. Identifies the most common and important ones. Compiles them and embeds them in the definition. This work refers to the mental connection of several important factors. Synthesis is possible in the study of other phenomena, when individual facts come together to form the overall picture. Analysis and synthesis go hand in hand.
Analogy. Analogy is also classified as a logical operation of thinking. Transferring properties of one object to another. Such liberties are not always permissible. However, it is an effective way to change your perspective and take a closer look at a previously unknown phenomenon. Many discoveries in aerodynamics were made in this way. By observing birds and insects, people were able to better understand its principles.
Deduction. A way of logical thinking from the general to the specific. A type of inference. A typical example. All fruits are sweet. Therefore, apricot is sweet. In this case, the conclusion is drawn on the basis that the apricot is a fruit and therefore has the properties of all fruits. As a rule, such knowledge is true. Apart from some cases. It is possible to use deduction in more complex, subtle situations. The deductive method is widespread in medicine, areas associated with intensive analysis of circumstances.
Induction. The opposite phenomenon. Movements from the particular to the general. Apricot is sweet. Therefore, all fruits are sweet. This statement is clearly false. You need to be careful when using such a tool. Logicians adhere to the law of sufficient reason. Here it is broken. Because a certain property is unreasonably transferred to an entire class of objects. Inductive knowledge often produces false conclusions. You can move from the specific to the general when putting forward hypotheses. This allows you to look at an object or phenomenon from a different perspective.

The definition of instrumentation is incomplete. It is possible to use other operations of logical thinking. The higher the level of development of thinking abilities, the more effective and easier it is to use these tools. With sufficient practice, the thinker ceases to notice intermediate operations; they are carried out easily and organically.

In complex situations, the number of operations can reach hundreds or even thousands. Depending on the nature of the subject of research.

Critical and non-critical thinking

Uncritical thinking is taking everything you hear and see on faith. In this case, the person does not think about the reliability of the information, the importance of what is perceived and its purpose. It is this inability to read between the lines that is the main reason for phishing or manipulating people.

In contrast to an uncritical perception of the world and excessive trust, critical thinking is a person’s ability to make sense of everything around him. A well-developed ability to think critically allows a person to avoid becoming a victim of rhetoric, manipulation and misinformation. Contemporary British philosopher Tom Chatfield calls critical thinking a metacognitive skill that allows:

quickly learn, improve and adapt;
treat information selectively and carefully and be able to verify it;
explain your point of view clearly and logically;
understand your interlocutor better;
control emotions;
selectively work with information flows;
notice and not fall under the influence of patterns and stereotypes;
comprehensively comprehend what is happening.

Thus, the goal of critical thinking is to find the best explanation for everything that happens in the world. To be as critical as possible, you need to remember these important aspects of cognitive cognition:

healthy skepticism;
objectivity;
awareness of bias;
elimination of cognitive distortions;
use of logical thinking.

Tom Chatfield also formulated 10 commandments of critical thinking:

Take your time and think about the information.
Save your mental strength. Willpower, energy and attention are very limited resources.
If in doubt, you need to wait.
Realize your own limitations.
Be aware of sunk costs and weigh whether to make them.
Evaluate strategy, not results. This will help minimize risks in long-term plans.
Remember reversion to the mean. We all vividly remember either successful or bad results, and at the same time we forget that the number of ordinary, mediocre results in life situations outweighs the ups and downs.
Look not for confirmation, but for refutation. Your arguments will be much more convincing if they are not only confirmed many times, but also if you include contradictions and justify their inconsistency.
Know your frame of reference, values and level of endurance.
All suggested options may be wrong.

The ability to think critically will help you not only better express your own thoughts, but also not become a victim of clip thinking due to an excess of information on the Internet [Tom Chatfield, “Critical Thinking”, 2019]. And our “Critical Thinking” course, which we strongly recommend that you take, will help you develop your critical thinking to a high level.

What are mental processes and what are they like?

Definition 1
Mental processes are mental phenomena that perform their specific functions in the integral system of the human psyche.

The emergence of this concept dates back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when analytical views played a leading role in science. Today, modern scientists believe that mental processes should not be considered individually, since they are all interconnected and cannot exist separately.

There are three main groups of mental processes:

cognitive (sensation, perception, reflection, speech, attention, representation, thinking, memory, imagination)
emotional (emotions, feelings, affects, stress)
strong-willed (struggle of motives, decision-making, goal setting)

Are you an expert in this subject area? We invite you to become the author of the Directory Working Conditions

Further in the article we will talk in more detail about such a cognitive psychological process as thinking.

Scientific thinking

In addition to the ability to think in everyday life, which we acquire in the process of social communication and life experience, there is also scientific thinking - a special way of understanding the world and interpreting reality.

In scientific thinking, unlike everyday thinking, there is a strict algorithm for collecting, systematizing and checking information with subsequent stages of processing it in order to obtain new knowledge about the subject. For scientific thinking, it is important to minimize the level of subjective interest, personal determinism, to use different forms of analysis, theoretical justification of the problem and methods of achieving the goal. Another important characteristic of scientific thinking is solving a problem or rethinking existing knowledge.

You can read more about the important aspects and specifics of scientific thinking in the article “Scientific thinking: meaning, features and methods.”

Development (exercises for training)

The development of thinking begins at an early age. At birth, the baby does not have the ability to think, but by the age of one year the beginning of thought processes is formed. To develop thinking, knowledge, experience, and memory are necessary. In the process of development, the child accumulates the necessary components through knowledge of the world around him and the simplest thinking begins to manifest itself.

The speed and quality of the formation of thought processes depends on how much attention parents pay to this issue. It is necessary to constantly work with the child to quickly develop and consolidate thinking skills.

The ability to form thoughts encourages self-learning and knowledge. The development of thinking occurs continuously from birth until complete extinction in the process of communication. Activities and learning new things in everyday life are shaped by a person’s subconscious. At each life stage it has its own characteristics:

For young children, thinking is visual and effective. All processes aimed at performing the simplest tasks (taking a toy, opening a box, bringing something or getting something). The child thinks, acts, develops. This continuous process is learned in everyday life both through play and through the need to achieve certain actions.
When mastering speech, the child learns to generalize and gradually his thought process goes beyond the visual and effective. Thinking and speech are in close connection; human speech contributes to the development of abstract thinking, the ability to generalize objects and phenomena, and to identify the essence based on acquired knowledge. Speech in adults is the main way of transferring experience and skills, which greatly facilitates learning.
The expansion of speech allows one to express oneself in words; the child moves more towards figurative and abstract thinking. At this stage, fantasy is formed. Creative abilities develop.
Schoolchildren learn to operate with knowledge acquired verbally (general education subjects). There is no practical confirmation by experience. This stage teaches you to draw conclusions based on logical connections and accumulated knowledge about objects and phenomena. Various school curriculum methods increase the efficiency and speed of operating with concepts and reaching conclusions in a short time in the presence of insufficient knowledge about a subject or phenomenon.
Higher grades promote the formation of abstract thinking. Studying and analyzing fiction provokes the development of thinking and imagination.

The older the child gets, the more thinking methods are involved in the daily process. The main means of developing children's thinking is education, including the formation of speech, the study of objects and phenomena through verbal transmission of data and the formation of abstract thinking and imagination based on fiction, creativity (drawing, knitting, embroidery, wood carving).

The stages of development of thinking directly depend on what was learned earlier and the level of intelligence. Usually appropriate for age categories.

In the accumulation of a conceptual base, several levels are distinguished: the higher the level of development, the easier it is for a person to generalize or analyze phenomena (or objects), the easier it is to find a solution to the question:

The first level is characterized by the ability to generalize simple concepts accumulated by personal experience or learned when presented in verbal form.
The second phase is marked by the expansion of conceptual thinking.
The third level is characterized by the ability to give clearer concepts of conditions, identify specific signs and support what has been said with specific examples from life that are suitable for the meaning and conditions of the task.
The fourth level is the highest level of conceptual thinking, in which the individual has complete knowledge about an object or phenomenon and easily determines its position in the world around him, indicating the relationships and differences.

Important! The higher the level of knowledge of concepts, the clearer the judgment becomes and the easier the conclusion is reached.

Types of thinking in a global perspective

In the modern world, more and more scientists, philosophers and writers are trying to set new boundaries for society - how to develop in the period of globalization, perceive all kinds of information flows and keep up with progress. Cognitive psychology professor Howard Gardner, known for his theory of multiple intelligences and new forms of learning, is confident that our time requires new and positive types of thinking that will be important not only for the individual, but also for society.

Gartner refers the first three types of thinking as forms of cognition, and the last two to the area of human relationships:

Disciplinary type of thinking. Once we have mastered this mindset, any of us can call ourselves an expert in any discipline, craft or profession. Howard Gardner argues that in the modern world, many people neglect the quality of their professionalism and do not realize the scale of their chosen profession or calling. Besides the fact that learning any craft takes on average up to 10 years, the process of improving skills must last a lifetime, and we must follow technological and innovative changes. Thus, people who have not mastered at least one discipline will not be able to be successful in the future.
Synthesizing type of thinking. It helps not to drown in the flow of information, skillfully systematize it, highlight features and see trends. This thinking skill is very useful not only for executives, managers and analysts, but also for creative people who strive to change the world around them. And if you do not master the synthesizing type of thinking, a person will drown under an endless stream of information and it will be very difficult for him to make important decisions, both career and personal.
Creative type of thinking. According to Howard Gardner, it organically complements the previous ones. A person who has well-developed creative thinking, having good knowledge in several fields and areas of life, can develop original ideas that will change society. Creativity is especially important in the modern world, because computers are completely replacing human labor in many areas of service and office work.
Respectological type of thinking. Helps you wisely form your own boundaries with the outside world, respect and appreciate the differences between people and groups. By learning this type of thinking, a person stops blindly believing stereotypes and other cognitive distortions that are often adopted unconsciously. A person with a good respectability mindset is able to accept people for who they are, respect them, and not judge or underestimate them because of cultural, racial, or other differences. It is by respecting other people that we are aware of the positive climate around us and contribute to a good work process. Gardner is confident that a person's true respect for others is manifested in ordinary life situations, when no one is watching the person. A person who has developed respectological thinking tries to positively evaluate everyone, without taking into account social characteristics and biases, and he is always ready to admit his guilt and change his decision if he receives new information.
Ethical type of thinking. Refers to a higher worldview, having mastered which, a person can not only reflect on the desires, needs and trends in society, but also influence the course of events in a reasoned and authoritative manner. The concept of this type of reasoning is much broader than respectological thinking, which is based on the idea of tolerance and respect. The ethical type of thinking is a view from above, which helps to evaluate the actions of each person from the point of view of usefulness for society. Thus, by developing ethical thinking, we develop civil society. But Howard Gardner reminds us that an important aspect of ethical thinking is that there is no universal ethics - you always need to start from the context, history and cultural memory of each society.

All types of thinking proposed by Gardner are not separate mental abilities, but rather represent a complex of a comprehensively developed person who feels his importance and social duty. This is why Gardner suggests developing all types of thinking from as early an age as possible, although he does not discount the possibility of teaching these abilities to adults [Howard Gardner, “Thinking for the Future,” 2015].

How to check the degree of development of logical thinking

Psychologists diagnose logical thinking. In some cases, teachers can assess skills and the degree of maturity of intellectual activity. Determining the level is quite difficult. Because errors are possible. A discount is made on the new conditions in which the test subject is located, on the complexity of the didactic material and other factors. Because not all forms of logic are equally developed in one person. Especially if he did not undergo special training and did not train. The average indicators are recorded in writing in order to compare the initial and final results after a certain development.

The tasks and assignments are selected by a psychologist. Usually, for testing purposes, it is enough to selectively compile material from Eysenck questionnaires and similar ones. Also included are questions from the Wonderlica questionnaire (Vanderlik), processed in Russian.

The task is to examine the extent to which the subject is able to use the tools of formal logic. Without special training, it is used chaotically, without a system.

Psychologists use logical tasks as effective material. There are many of them on the Internet, but not many check the actual logic. Therefore, it is better to treat the material on the sites with a sufficient degree of skepticism.

Conversations show good results. In the course of the subject’s reasoning, inaccuracies, harmony of statements and arguments, features of movement and trajectories of thoughts are already visible. Not all psychologists are competent enough to immediately talk and evaluate the reasoning of their patients. Therefore, out of necessity, they attract specialists who are familiar with formal logic and freely use its methods in practice.

In some cases, it is advisable to use text materials, simple journalistic articles, and popular science texts. This will allow you to evaluate the degree of effectiveness of working with what you have written.

Psychologists have many more methods at their disposal. For example, visual material on cards. The patient is provided with a series of picture cards as stimulus material. They depict situations. The task is to arrange the displayed events in exact sequence. Then tell the story that turned out.

The examination may take a lot of time. Depends on what aspects of logical thinking the specialist evaluates. On average, diagnosis takes from 60 to 180 minutes. Plus or minus.

Logical thinking tests are also carried out as part of the identification of mental disorders. But here it is enough to limit ourselves to the “exclude the unnecessary” techniques and working with cards. As described above. In patients with schizophrenia and psychosis, a split in the processes of intellectual activity is observed. Therefore, they are not capable of even basic logical thinking. Disturbances in logical thinking also occur in healthy people. But not in such a rude manner. They are rather inaccurate in nature. But in general, the nature of the reasoning is correct.

If a person does not have the opportunity to contact a psychologist, you can test yourself. For this, resources with Eysenck and Wonderlick tests will come to the rescue. It is not necessary to undergo diagnostics often. Selective development of certain aspects of intellectual activity is possible. It turns out that the tasks are solved without problems, but in other situations the subject is helpless or is at the same level as he was. The information content of such self-diagnosis is minimal.

Creative thinking

Creative thinking is also commonly called creative thinking. The main goal of this approach to thinking is to generate ideas and create new discoveries. Its peculiarity is that to activate creativity, you need to use not only the left part of the brain, responsible for logical-verbal images, but also the right hemisphere, the creative one.

Creativity expert Michael Micalko argues that it is impossible to create anything new if you use only what you already know about something. He believes the secret to all new and exciting ideas is conceptual mixing.

Conceptual blending is a creative thinking process in which two or more concepts are mixed to invent a new one, and preference is given to imagination rather than logical thinking while working. This way of thinking was characteristic of many geniuses of the past: Isaac Newton, Wolfgang Mozart, Sigmund Freud, Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso. All these people were not afraid to go beyond the accepted thinking and break the rules. Leonardo da Vinci called this mental strategy of multiple observation perspectives “saper vedere” or “the ability to see,” and Albert Einstein called it a combinatorial game.

Mikalko is convinced that we are often prevented from coming up with something new by generally accepted thinking models (or linear thinking), which we perceive unconsciously during our schooling. But he is also confident that everyone can develop creativity [Michael Mikalko, “Creative Explosion”, 2013]. By the way, on the topic of developing creative thinking, we have a good course “Creative Thinking: Development of Creativity.” We advise you to get to know him.

Quality thinking

Since thinking is one of the mental processes, it is as individual as character or temperament.

It can be characterized by the following criteria :

Breadth – the ability to cover a wide range of issues, knowledge in different industries, and the ability to think creatively.
Depth is the ability to foresee a situation in advance after analysis, the ability to penetrate to the essence.
Flexibility - quickly change your strategy depending on how circumstances change. Using different types of tactics, as well as the ability to find new solutions.
Independence is the ability to set the right goal yourself and find an approach to it. This is also where creativity and creative potential comes into play.
Originality is the ability to produce new ideas that differ from the generally accepted ones.
Initiative – a constant desire to bring something of your own; solve the problem if you have not yet been made a performer.

Visual thinking

Visual thinking is another type of creative thinking that will be useful in many life situations. Visual thinking will help:

create the perfect travel plan or route;
solve the problem of;
structure information.

It also helps in organizing projects and any events and allows you to figuratively explain the essence of new ideas.

The main feature of visual thinking is its impact on people’s visual and figurative perception rather than on the verbal and abstract [Roem Dan, “Visual Thinking: How to Sell Your Ideas Using Visual Images,” 2013].

The most famous form of visual thinking was developed by British psychologist Tony Buzan, which he called mind-maps.

The essence of using mind maps is to successfully memorize a large amount of information, generate different options for solving problems and the ability to see key ideas in information flows. The effectiveness of this technique lies in the use of figurative rather than linear thinking.

Tony Buzan calls this way of generating ideas radial thinking, which is based on the use of associative logic, focusing on details and seeing the future. The mind map itself has a tree-like structure and provides for the gradual development of a hierarchy of information importance [Tony Buzan, “Mind maps. The Complete Guide to Powerful Intelligence", 2018].

To delve deeper into the essence of using mental maps, be sure to read our article “How you can use mental maps” and, of course, the book by the creator of these maps, Tony Buzan, “Mind Maps”.

Thinking is...

Thinking is a cognitive process through which the reality around us is reflected, a way of interacting with the outside world. Often thinking is associated with a task and problem that needs to be solved.

It has two important features:

This is mediation . A person first perceives information through the senses. Through these sensations the idea of objects is formed. You reach some properties through others, and based on facts you can think about broader things.
The second is generality , which is related to the first feature. All properties of objects are combined with each other. And a person connects them while thinking like a puzzle, and thus the overall picture of the world appears.

As they said earlier, thinking actively works when resolving a situation. The process of gradual development of thinking can be described in 4 stages:

Awareness of the presence of a problem after analyzing information over a period of time.
Formation of hypotheses and search for solutions.
Testing hypotheses.
Solving a problem situation.

Design Thinking

Design thinking is considered less creative, but no less effective. Its main principle is the step-by-step structuring of information, consideration of possible prospects for the development of the problem in order to predict the best option. The main difference between design thinking and traditional analytical thinking is the combination of creative and analytical approaches.

Stages of design thinking:

Clearly define the problem, study the opinions of other people.
Explore the characteristic patterns and features of the problem.
Generate ideas and principles for solving a problem.
Creating a draft is the first option for solving the problem.
Evaluate the results.
Improve the plan for solving the problem, add new methods.

Thus, the main tools of design thinking are logic, imagination and intuition. This approach helps to correctly understand and set priorities, as well as rethink some beliefs that prevent you from achieving what you want [Bill Burnett, Dave Evans, “Designing your life. Live the way you need”, 2018].

If you want to understand design thinking better, we have for you the articles “What is design thinking” and “Design thinking: what is it and how to apply it”, as well as a very interesting course on design thinking, which you can take you will learn to apply many interesting techniques and techniques in any area of your life.

Joy Paul Guilford's Theories of Creativity

Psychologist Joy Paul Guilford is known as the developer of two models of thinking and concepts of creativity. He identified four main principles of creative solutions:

originality – producing new ideas using associative thinking;
semantic flexibility - the ability to determine the characteristics of an object or phenomenon, develop new alternatives to properties, improve ideas;
figurative adaptive flexibility - the ability to change the shape, characteristics or capabilities of an object;
semantic spontaneous flexibility - the ability to produce ideas in limited time and urgent situations.

Also, Joy Paul Guilford describes two creative systems of thinking: convergent and divergent.

Divergent thinking is characterized by seeing several options for solving a problem using the same initial data. The development of divergent thinking is based on the use of imagination within clearly defined parameters (for example, you need to come up with as many ways as possible to use different objects).

Convergent thinking allows you to find a single correct solution among a large amount of information. The main approach to applying this type of thinking is to use previously learned strategies and algorithms to solve problems. Thus, divergent thinking is inherently considered a more creative type of cognition.

You can read more about the development of divergent and convergent thinking in our article “Divergent thinking: features, methods of development.”

Divergent and convergent thinking

These complex names are used, as a rule, to describe work in a team. But this can also concern thoughts in the head of one person. Now we will explain everything in accessible language.

Divergent thinking is the discovery and expression of new ideas without the opportunity to criticize and discuss. This type of thought process allows you not to stop your imagination and produce whole streams of sometimes good solutions to problems, sometimes complete nonsense.

Accordingly, convergent thinking is the assessment and analysis of ideas in a brainstorm. During such rational selection, many decisions are immediately discarded. And others, in a repeated circle, succumb to critical thinking.

In order to find a way out of the situation quickly and effectively, you should not go to extremes. Because you can either generate a huge pile of unrealistic ideas or get stuck in an analytical stupor, afraid to assume anything.

Systems thinking

Systems thinking helps to see the relationships between objects and phenomena, understand the context, correlation and causation of events.

Systems thinking is usually used to effectively solve problems. The essence of this thinking is that in order to understand how to solve a problem, you need not only to understand the problem itself, as a consequence, but to understand what led to its occurrence, what phenomena and factors caused its occurrence. This approach to solving the problem is that systems thinking develops nonlinearly, but in many directions simultaneously [Donella Meadows, “The ABCs of Systems Thinking,” 2018].

The strength of systems thinking is that it helps to go beyond linearity and formal logic, to see subtle relationships between objects and phenomena. That is why systems thinking is a more reliable tool for finding the cause of a particular problem than the cause-and-effect thinking that is typical for all people. You just need to learn how to use it. Systems thinking allows you to see the algorithms of relationships and the structure of any object or phenomenon more reliably [Ian McDermott, Joseph O'Connor, “The Art of Systems Thinking”, 2018].

Processes

The thinking process is a purposeful process of operating with concepts and judgments to obtain a result. The process is preceded by a certain situation (which by default will be the condition of the task), followed by the collection of information and its analysis.

At the end of the chain, a person comes to a conclusion, which involves solving a given problem and finding a way out of the current situation or predicting various options for the development of events.

There are only 4 stages of the process aimed at finding a solution:

Preparation;
finding a solution;
inspiration to achieve it;
checking the results.

The whole process consists of a chain of points flowing from each other.

The process begins with motivation, characterized by the desire to find a solution. This is followed by the collection of information (initial data), their evaluation and conclusion.

Thinking techniques:

analysis is a mental “sorting out”. Analysis represents the decomposition of a problem into its components and the isolation of its fundamentals;
synthesis is the process of combining parts into a single whole according to certain characteristics. The relationship of each component to the whole is mentally established. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis and is represented by the generalization of existing details into a single whole;
comparison is the process of identifying the similarities between objects and phenomena and their differences;
classification represents a breakdown point by point, forming certain classes and subclasses;
generalization is the identification of what is common among various objects or phenomena and the identification of what is identified into one group. A generalization can be simple (based on one sign or property) or complex based on different components;
specification allows you to determine the essence of a phenomenon or object;
abstraction is the opposite of concretization, when an abstract image is created during the process. The development of abstract perception is influenced by exercises that require a creative approach.

Methods for developing thinking are known to psychologists, neurologists and teachers. Techniques include problem solving, games, learning to look from different angles, training imaginative and intuitive thinking through creativity. In development, it is important to take into account individual characteristics of thinking.

A person with a pronounced tendency towards fantasy should pay more attention to the development of a creative and extraordinary approach in the process of processing information. On the contrary, if you have accuracy and consistency, you should pay more attention in this direction.

Strategic and tactical thinking

Strategic thinking is a skill that allows you to achieve the desired result in the future. We are all strategists to one degree or another, as we make plans and envision how to achieve goals. But some people do not plan intuitively and cause-and-effect, based on experience, but possess important techniques and thinking tools. These are the people who are called strategists.

Strategists know how to behave now in order to get what they want later, even if it is unlikely, strategists will mentally calculate possible options for achieving the goal. This is how they build their tactics.

Therefore, tactical and strategic thinking are closely interrelated: strategy is long-term goals, and tactics are specific and understandable actions that should lead to the desired long-term goals. Strategy usually answers the question “What?”, and tactics usually answers the question “How?”.

Strategic thinking is more than being two steps ahead of the enemy, it is the ability to calculate not just one outcome of events, but several - be it paths to competition or cooperation. Therefore, due to the many possible options and the low percentage of implementation of each of them, economics professors and business coaches Barry Nalebuff and Avinash Dixit consider strategy more an art than a strict cognitive process, which is characterized by clear steps to achieve a goal [Barry J. Nalebuff, Avinash Dixit, Game Theory. The art of strategic thinking in business and life", 2018].

Thus, thinking strategically is not so much knowledge of the world as the ability to realize one’s thoughts and ideas even with low certainty. Knowledge of strategic principles helps you make decisions and act more effectively, become stronger and achieve an advantage. Strategic thinking helps develop memory, concentration and multi-vector analysis of any situation in life, business or politics.

To master this type of thinking, you can read our articles “How to Develop Strategic Thinking”, “Tips on How to Think Strategically”, “Seven Pillars of Strategic Thinking” and “How to Become a Strategic Genius”. And we summarize the article and want to give some more useful tips.

Phases of mental activity

Thinking represents an action that is aimed at solving a problem. Action is a process, like any process it has certain phases in its structure. The thought process consists of the following phases:

problem occurs
formation of an approximate solution
mental verification of this decision (by analysis, comparison, etc.)
conclusion

The first phase of the thought process is the emergence of a problem, sometimes it causes surprise. When a person experiences difficulty in resolving some issue, this is the phase of the problem arising. Next, the individual realizes the presence of a problem and begins mental operations aimed at finding a solution. A person analyzes each approximately suitable solution and tests the hypothesis. After this, the person makes a conclusion as to which solution is most suitable. Problem solving is the final stage of the thinking process.

How to develop thinking

As you can understand from our article, thinking is a skill that can and should be constantly developed. To improve your analytical, creative and strategic abilities, you must first set clear goals for yourself. You will find useful tips on developing your thinking in our articles “How to change your thinking” and “Developing your thinking: ways to train your brain.”

Moreover, we have excellent courses to develop different types of thinking. In the “Cognitive Science” course, we have prepared more than 20 techniques that will teach you to reason effectively and logically, make quick decisions and find innovative solutions to various problems, and the “Neurosciences” program will improve your memory, visual thinking and ability to concentrate.

Also, be sure to pay attention to the programs, articles and courses to which we provided links, and below you will find links to materials used in writing the article - they may also be useful to you:

Maria Falikman, “Types of thinking.”
Roem Dan, “Visual Thinking: How to Sell Your Ideas with Visuals,” 2013.
Barry Buzan, Superthinking. Change your life with mind maps", 2021.
Bill Burnett, Dave Evans, Designing Your Life. Live the way you need”, 2021.
Donella Meadows, The ABCs of Systems Thinking, 2021.
Ian McDermott, Joseph O'Connor, The Art of Systems Thinking. Essential knowledge of systems and creative problem solving", 2021.
Barry J. Nalebuff, Avinash Dixit, Game Theory. The art of strategic thinking in business and life", 2021.
Pavel Avraamov, “Go Strategy. An ancient game and modern business, or how to win the competition", 2021.
Stephen Sloman, Philip Fernbach, The Illusion of Knowledge. Why we never think alone,” 2021.
Daniel Kahneman, Think Slow, Decide Fast, 2014.
Tom Chatfield, Critical Thinking. Analyze, doubt, form your opinion”, 2021.
Howard Gardner, Future Thinking. Five types of intelligence leading to success in life", 2015.
Michael Mikalko, Creative Explosion, 2013.
Tony Buzan, Mind Maps. The Complete Guide to Powerful Intelligence", 2021.

Good luck!

We also recommend reading:

Storytelling
Conceptual thinking: by stages of cognition
Types of thinking
Thinking techniques
Combinatorial thinking
How and why to develop thinking
Daniel Kahneman “Think Slowly... Decide Fast” - summary of the book
Theories of thinking
Digest: critical thinking
Language and thinking: relationship and related issues
Language and thinking

Key words: 1LLL, 1Cognitive science

Types of thinking

Thinking represents the highest form of human cognitive activity. Thanks to processes occurring at the subconscious and conscious levels, a person forms concepts about the world around him and phenomena. Finds solutions to problems posed by life.

All processes of mental activity are divided depending on goals and variations in worldview. Ways of thinking are different and allow you to find a way out of any situation with different approaches to solving the problem. The main types of human thinking:

Critical thinking

It is used to evaluate the solutions found in the thinking process regarding the possibility of their application in practice. Critical thinking allows you to choose the most correct solution path and evaluate the reality of its implementation.

Positive thinking

Represented by the acceptance of good fortune and goodness. A person with a positive type of thinking perceives everything in rosy tones, always retains faith in the best outcome and the ability to find a way out of any situation.

Abstract thinking

Allows you to renounce the details and look at the situation or problem as a whole. It needs to be developed from an early age. Pronounced abstraction is characterized by quick thinking and a non-standard approach.

A special feature of the ability to abstract is the ability to quickly find the essence in an unfamiliar situation, collecting all the information in a short time. This allows you to find a solution in any situation.

Logical thinking

This is the processing of available information with an emphasis on cause and effect. In logical thinking, a person uses existing knowledge by processing it in a certain sequence.

The result of such thinking will be finding the most correct solution for a specific problem. It allows you to draw conclusions, decide on further tactics and find a solution in a situation that requires quick action.

When there is no time and opportunity to comprehensively study a subject and develop detailed tactics for solving a problem, logical thinking allows you to quickly outline a path to resolution and begin action immediately.

Clip thinking

This is a feature of perception based on the formation of judgments based on short, vivid images taken out of context. People with clip thinking are able to form judgments based on short news clips or news excerpts.

It is characteristic of the modern generation of young people and allows you to quickly find information of interest without delving into the features and details. It is characterized by surface and little information content. The disadvantage of this type will be a decrease in concentration and an inability to comprehensively study the task at hand.

Creative thinking

Allows you to find solutions that are not recognized by society. Deviation from templates and an extraordinary approach are its main features. Thanks to a decision that is different from the expected one, people with creative thinking are at the advantage under equal conditions with people with thinking patterns.

It allows people of the creative profession to create something new and unique, and businessmen to find solutions to seemingly insoluble problems. People with creative thinking often have behavioral deviations in comparison with the general principle.

Visual-figurative thinking

Allows you to quickly get results thanks to instant processing of information based on visual images. The figurative solution is formed mentally and is accessible to people who are able to create visual pictures quite fully.

This type of thinking is not based on practical facts. Trained from childhood by memorizing an object followed by the most complete reconstruction of its description. Visual-figurative thinking and imagination are closely connected and are easily trained in childhood through play and creative activities.

Systems thinking

Allows you to determine connections between disconnected objects and phenomena. All elements are in mutual connection with each other. The ability to recognize and recreate them allows you to project the result at the beginning.

Thanks to a systematic approach, it is possible to identify different directions of development of events and choose the most appropriate one or identify a mistake in actions and find a solution.

A person with systems thinking is able to simplify the solution of a problem, study reality from different points of view and change his beliefs in the process of life.

All this allows you to adapt to a constantly changing environment and get out of any situation with the least losses.

Spatial thinking

Orientation in space is possible thanks to the development of spatial thinking. This is the ability to navigate in place and perceive the environment as a whole, recreating in memory the location of objects relative to each other and the person himself, regardless of the point at which he is located.

It begins to form at the age of 2-3 years and can develop throughout life.

Strategic Thinking

This is the ability of an individual to predict in advance the result of activity in a certain direction (action), not only personal, but also of the opponent. Developed strategic thinking allows you to calculate the enemy’s moves and act proactively, achieving. thereby. high results.

Analytical thinking

This is the ability to obtain the maximum information from the minimum available material by analyzing each component of the data provided. Through logical reasoning, a person predicts different options when considering an issue from several points of view, which allows one to find the most optimal solution.

People with analytical thinking say that they will first think everything through and then do it. The proverb “try on seven times, cut once” is a guide for people with an analytical mind.

Creative thinking

Characterized by the ability to create subjectively new things based on what already exists. In addition to obtaining a phenomenon or object that is different from the original one, creative thinking allows you to collect information in ways that go beyond templates, which allows you to obtain a solution to the problem quickly and efficiently. It belongs to the productive group and develops easily in childhood.

Lateral thinking

Allows you to solve a problem qualitatively by examining an object or phenomena from different sides and from different angles. Lateral thinking uses not only accumulated experience and knowledge, but also intuitive abilities, which sometimes run counter to scientific ideas.

Based on experience and one’s own feelings, a person can not only find a way out of a situation, but also enjoy solving even complex problems. As a rule, people who use lateral thinking choose a creative approach and an extraordinary type of problem solving, which allows them to achieve the best results.

Associative thinking

This is the ability of the brain to create a variety of vivid images associated with an object or phenomenon, which allows you to study the conditions of the problem not only on a conceptual level, but also to connect the emotional and sensory background, form your own attitude to the problem and fill it with various colors.

With developed associative thinking, a person is able to connect various situations that have nothing in common with a specific subject. For example, people can associate certain events in their personal or social life with a particular tune or movie.

Thanks to this, a person is able to find non-standard solutions to a problem and create something qualitatively new based on what already exists.

Divergent and convergent thinking

Divergent is characterized by an individual’s ability to find many solutions given the same initial data. The opposite is convergent - focusing on one option for the development of an event with a complete rejection of the possibility of other options for solving the problem.

The development of divergent thinking allows you to select many options for solving a problem that go beyond the generally accepted ones, and choose the most optimal path of action that can quickly lead to the desired result with the least expenditure of energy and money.

Thinking outside the box

Allows you to find an unusual solution to a problem in any situation. The main value of non-standard thinking is the ability to find a way out of a “no-win situation” when standard methods do not work.

Sanogenic and pathogenic thinking

Sanogenic (healthy) thinking is aimed at healing, while pathogenic thinking, on the contrary, leads to illness due to its destructive influence. The pathogenic type is determined by a person’s tendency to replay a negative situation many times over time, which leads to the emergence of negative emotions (anger, resentment, rage, hopelessness). Persons with a pathogenic type tend to blame themselves for what happened and constantly suffer, replaying a bad situation.

Holders of a sanogenic worldview are able to abstract from negativity and create a comfortable emotional background; they do not depend on stressful situations.

Rational and irrational thinking

Represented by two opposites. The first type is based on strict adherence to logic and has a clear structure, which allows you to find a solution to most life situations.

The second type is characterized by fragmentary judgments in the absence of a clear thought process.

People with irrational thinking jump from one thing to another, allowing their thoughts to move chaotically. A rationally thinking person always thinks everything over carefully and chooses the most logically verified way to solve a problem. Irrationalists, on the other hand, rely on feelings and emotions.

Conceptual thinking

It is formed in school-age children and consists in the formation of certain truths that do not require proof. Conceptual thinking excludes the possibility of considering an object or phenomenon from different angles due to the formation of a certain cliché. It excludes dissent and creativity in solving the problem.

Scientific thinking

Represents the desire to understand the essence of an object or the root cause of a phenomenon. It is characterized by consistency, requires the collection of evidence and is objective in nature. The advantage of scientific thinking is the ability to study the processes of the surrounding world and use the results obtained for the benefit of society or oneself.

Stereotypical thinking

Represented by the tendency to evaluate events and phenomena according to generally accepted standards without involving logic or creativity. It allows one to socialize, but it kills a person’s individuality and makes him not only predictable, but also easily suggestible.

The development of thinking and imagination is the main method of combating stereotyping and developing the ability to independently solve problems and find a way out of situations. Reduces the efficiency of the process due to the inability to act in situations not described in the instructions.