Lesson 1. General psychology

Despite the fact that man is in constant development, and the world around him is changing all the time, the very nature of man and his behavior remain unchanged - they obey the same laws as many centuries ago. That is why general human psychology is still the object of interest of a huge number of scientists and specialists today. General psychology as a science remains important and relevant. Numerous seminars, theoretical and practical courses, workshops and various types of training are devoted to teaching the basics of general psychology. In this lesson you will get acquainted with the subject and method of general psychology, find out what problems, tasks, laws and features of this scientific discipline exist.

Introduction to General Psychology

General psychology is a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed, and also generalizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.

The most complete description of these components is given in the sections of general psychology. But, at the same time, individual manifestations of the psyche are not studied by general psychology, as, for example, in sections of special psychology (pedagogical, developmental, etc.).

The main subject of study of general psychology is such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will touch on in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with human life and activity, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.

A theoretical course in general psychology usually includes the study of any specific thematic sections, areas, research, history and problems of this science. A practical course is, as a rule, mastering the methods of research, pedagogical and practical psychological work.

Branches of psychology

Each branch of psychology has its own personal ideas, which include an individual sequence of subjects that compare individual criteria and mental problems.

Developmental psychology includes children's psychology, divided by each age, adolescence, youth, and the sphere of a formed person, elderly and senile age - gerontopsychology.

A special branch of psychology has contracts: pathopsychology, which studies the law of disintegration of mental activity in any disease, oligophrenopsychology - studies the correlation of mental retardation, typhlopsychology - the study of blind people, and deaf psychology, the study of the deaf.

Social psychology includes the study of contact, the relationship between people, groups, and individual qualities of a person (person).

The labor structure has several divisions. In general, it provides a basic field of knowledge in relation to established types of human occupation, such as the branch of engineering that comprehends human, human-machine work activities, the field of aviation, management, and many other professions.

An exercise in understanding other people

And before we move on to studying human psychology, we suggest you do a peer-test task to assess your ability to understand what is happening in the souls of other people. It consists of three steps:

Read the description of the situation and write down what emotions you experienced while reading it.
Read the responses of other users and try to understand why they experience these particular emotions.
After that, you need to evaluate how well you understood the other person and how close your answer is to theirs.

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Methods of general psychology

Like any other science, general psychology uses a system of various methods. The basic methods for obtaining various facts in psychology are considered to be observation, conversation and experiments. Each of these methods can be modified to improve results.

Observation

Observation is the most ancient way of knowledge. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term (can take place even over several years), selective, continuous and special (participant observation, during which the observer is immersed in the group he himself is studying).

The standard observation procedure consists of several stages:

Setting goals and objectives;
Definition of the situation, subject and object;
Determining the methods that will have the least impact on the object under study and ensure that the necessary data is obtained;
Determining how data is maintained;
Processing of received data.

External observation (by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also self-observation. It can be either immediate - in the current moment, or delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Observation is an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

Conversation

Conversation as a psychological method involves direct/indirect, oral/written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life (from the person himself or from people who know him), interviews (a person answers pre-prepared questions), questionnaires and different types of questionnaires (written answers to questions).

A personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined works best. At the same time, it is important to think through the conversation beforehand, draw up a plan and identify problems that should be identified. During the conversation, questions from the person being examined are also expected. A two-way conversation produces the best results and provides more information than just answering questions.

But the main method of research is experiment.

Experiment

An experiment is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of activity of the subject in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.

There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are guided by instructions. A person knows about the experiment, although he may not know its true meaning. Some experiments are carried out repeatedly and on a whole group of people - this makes it possible to establish important patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

Another method is tests. These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. The tests are short-term tasks that are similar for everyone, the results of which determine whether the test subjects have certain mental qualities and the level of their development. Various tests are created in order to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.

Since the genetic principle plays a special role in the methods of psychological research, the genetic method is also distinguished. Its essence is the study of mental development in order to reveal general psychological patterns. This method is based on observations and experiments and builds on their results.

In the process of using various methods, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the problem being studied. Therefore, along with the main methods of psychological research, a number of special auxiliary and intermediate techniques are often used.

Psychology methods are discussed in more detail in the next lesson.

Foundation of Science

The general psychology of the discipline as a whole is based on simple questions that stand in the way of this science, their study, theoretical principles, methods of cognition, patterns and subsequent development in real human life.

The most important issue is the psyche. In its study, they try to give answers to questions such as: what is it, the psyche? Functionality, schematic? What laws does it obey in ontogenesis and phylogenesis? Stages of development, criteria? The relationship between the brain and the psyche? How does the innate psyche differ from the acquired one? Sociality and biology? By what principles can we distinguish normal development from abnormal development?

Considering fundamental questions is not the only thing science studies.

In addition, she pays attention to procedural specifics, its properties and situations. The main subject of study is a person, that is, his personality, activities, communication with other people, knowledge - these questions are submitted to practical and theoretical study

In some cases, these issues are isolated as a separate mental phenomenon, human activity, and cognitive processes.

Typically, general questions are based around the more personal branch of psychology related to self-knowledge. For example, phylogeny examines mental problems in comparison with animal psychology, comparing the development of the human psyche and the animal.

Ontogenetic development directly depends on age, psychological development - the balance between the brain and the mental system (in psychophysiology, neuropsychology); deviations in formation - special psychology examines what constant criteria the connection between the individual and society takes place; the creation and subsequent re-creation of groups - social psychology, a function of work activity; personal development of a person; the rule of education and training and pedagogical features of actions (teacher discipline).

Subject and object of general psychology

Any science is characterized, among other things, by the presence of its own subject and object of study. Moreover, the subject and object of science are different things. An object is only an aspect of the subject of science that is studied by the subject, i.e. researcher. Awareness of this fact is very important for understanding the specifics of general psychology, as a multifaceted and diverse science. Considering this fact, we can say the following.

The object of general psychology is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world on the basis of available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, serves as a mediator between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person’s ideas about the external and internal, bodily and mental.

The subject of general psychology is the laws of the psyche, as a form of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The subject is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.

Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to identify many objects for research within it, there are currently general theories of psychology in psychological science that are oriented towards different scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechniques to influence consciousness and control it. But no matter how complex the ways in which psychological thought advances, constantly transforming the object of its research and thereby plunging deeper into the subject, no matter what changes and additions it is subject to and no matter what terms it is designated, it is still possible to identify the main blocks of terms, which characterize the object of psychology. These include:

mental processes - psychology studies mental phenomena in the process of formation and development, the product of which are results formed into images, thoughts, emotions, etc.;
mental states – activity, depression, vigor, etc.;
mental properties of a person - determination, hard work, temperament, character;
mental new formations are the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person acquires throughout his life.

Naturally, all mental phenomena cannot exist in isolation, but are closely related to each other and influence each other. But we can consider each of them separately.

Psychology: lecture notes

2. The formation of psychology as a science

1. The development of psychology from ancient times to the middle of the 19th century.

2. The formation of psychology as an independent science.

3. Modern psychological concepts.

1. Interest in problems that are classified as psychological arose in man in ancient times.

The philosophers of ancient Greece in their treatises tried to penetrate the secrets of existence and the inner world of man.

Ancient philosophers explained the psyche based on the four elements on which, in their opinion, the world was based: earth, water, fire and air.

The soul, like everything in this world, consisted of these principles.

The ancients believed that the soul is located where there is heat and movement, that is, all nature is endowed with a soul.

Subsequently, the doctrine that spiritualizes the whole world received the name “animism” (from the Latin “anima” - “spirit”, “soul”).

Animism was replaced by a new philosophical doctrine - atomistic.

Aristotle was a prominent representative of this trend.

.
He believed that the world
is a collection of the smallest indivisible particles - atoms, which differ from each other in different mobility and size, and the material carriers of the soul are the smallest and most mobile.

Based on this mobility of atoms, Aristotle explained the mechanisms and laws of functioning of many mental phenomena: thinking, memory, perception, dreaming, etc.

Aristotle's treatise “On the Soul” is considered by many scientists as the first major scientific study in psychology.

According to Aristotle, a person has three souls: vegetable, animal and rational.

The mind depends on the size of the brain, emotions - on the heart.

Democritus was a representative of materialistic views.

. He believed that everything in the world consists of atoms.

Atoms exist in time and space, in which everything moves along a given path. In infinite space, indivisible and impenetrable particles move according to certain laws; the soul is formed by light, spherical particles of fire.

The soul is a fiery principle in the body, and death occurs as a result of the disintegration of the atoms of the soul and body. Both body and soul are mortal.

The merit of Democritus is that he initiated the development of the theory of knowledge, especially visual sensations. He developed recommendations for memorization, dividing the methods of preserving material into material and mental.

It is impossible not to mention the views of Plato

According to his views, a person is a prisoner in a cave, and reality is his shadow.

Man has two souls: mortal and immortal.

The mortal solves specific problems, and the immortal, whose life continues after death, is the very core of the psyche, the highest form endowed with reason.

Only the immortal soul gives true knowledge obtained as a result of insight.

There are eternal ideas, and the world is a weak reflection of ideas. In the process of life, the soul remembers those immortal ideas that it encountered before entering the body.

Plato's views regarding the functioning of human memory are interesting.

Memory

- This is a wax tablet. People have different memories and it depends on the quality of the wax.

We retain memories as long as they are preserved on a wax plate.

The doctrine of the soul in the early Middle Ages became part of the theological worldview and was completely transferred to religion, which continued until the 17th century. in the era.

During the Renaissance, all sciences and art began to actively develop again.

Natural sciences, medical sciences, biological sciences, various types of art, one way or another, touched upon the doctrine of the soul.

French, English and other European philosophers of that time, based on the mechanistic picture of the world, began to interpret many manifestations of the psyche from the standpoint of biomechanics and reflex, while addressing the internal manifestations of the psyche, the soul remained outside the scope of their consideration.

However, internal phenomena really existed and required an explanation of their role in human life. As a result, a new philosophical direction began to form - dualism, which argued that there are two independent principles in man: matter and spirit.

The science of that time was unable to explain the relationship and interdependence of these two principles, so it abandoned the study of behavior and focused on the subjective experience of a person (XVII-XVIII centuries).

Such positions were held by R. Descartes

and
J. Locke
.

The psyche was considered only as a manifestation of consciousness, the world of matter was excluded from the subject of psychology.

The main research method was the method of introspection (introspection), and natural scientific methods were considered unacceptable for studying the phenomena of the soul.

Simultaneously with such views, an atomistic understanding of the structure of the world developed. Simple manifestations of the psyche began to be considered as atoms.

This atomistic psychology developed over two centuries, until the end of the 19th century.

Thus, from ancient times until the middle of the 19th century. Psychology developed within the framework of other sciences, most often philosophy, medicine, and biology.

2. In the middle of the 19th century, profound changes occurred in the scientific worldview.

This also concerned the relationship between soul and body, material and mental manifestations.

Advances in medicine, in particular psychiatry, have undoubtedly proven that there is a close connection between brain disorders and mental disorders, which refutes the postulate of dualism about their separate existence.

There is a need to take a fresh look at the role of mental phenomena in human life and behavior.

The mechanistic understanding was good at explaining monotonous movements, but it became inadequate at understanding intelligent behavior.

The provisions of atomistic psychology also did not fit into the new scientific facts and required revision.

Thus, in the second half of the 19th century. psychological science was on the verge of a crisis, due to the following reasons:

1) understanding of mental phenomena has become impossible from the standpoint of exact natural knowledge;

2) the relationship between the mental and the physical defied reasonable explanation;

3) psychologists were unable to explain complex forms of human behavior that go beyond reflexes.

The emerging crisis led to the collapse of dualism and introspection as the only reliable source of obtaining psychological knowledge. In search of overcoming the crisis, three directions of psychological teaching arose: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis (Freudianism).

Let's take a closer look at them.

Behaviorism.

Its founder is the American scientist
D. Watson
, who proposed considering behavior (from the English behavior) as a subject of psychology, and considering mental phenomena unknowable using natural scientific methods.

To understand behavior, it is enough to describe the behavior itself, find out and describe the external and internal forces acting on the body, and study the laws according to which the interaction of stimuli and behavior occurs.

Behaviorists believed that the difference between animal behavior and human behavior lies only in the complexity and variety of reactions.

Nevertheless, Watson could not help but recognize the existence of purely human mental phenomena.

He interpreted mental states as functions that play an active role in the organism’s adaptation to the world, while admitting that he was unable to understand the meaning of this role.

Scientists of this direction denied the possibility of studying consciousness.

As Watson wrote, the behaviorist "observes nothing that he can call consciousness, feeling, sensation, imagination, will, to the extent that he no longer believes that these terms indicate genuine phenomena of psychology."

However, already in the 30s. In the 20th century, such extreme views of D. Watson were softened by neobehaviorists, primarily E. Tolman

and
K. Hull
. Thus, E. Tolman introduced the concept of reasonableness and expediency of behavior.

Target

- this is the final result achieved as a result of performing behavioral acts.

The most important psychological phenomena, according to Tolman, are goal, expectation, hypothesis, cognitive picture of the world, sign and its meaning.

K. Hull developed a model of behavior based on reactions to various stimuli.

The body responds to stimuli using innate and acquired ways that are associated with a system of “intermediate variables” that mediate this interaction.

Thus, behaviorism does not study the human mind, believing that psychology should explain behavior by examining the stimuli entering the body and the behavioral responses outgoing.

From this thesis comes the theory of learning, which is based on the use of all kinds of punishments and reinforcements when it is necessary to form appropriate reactions, due to which the theory is still popular, primarily among American psychologists ( B.F. Skinner

Gestalt psychology

originated in Germany and spread throughout almost all of Europe, including Russia, especially in the pre-war years.

This direction was influenced by such sciences as physics and mathematics.

Prominent representatives are K. Levin

,
M. Wertheimer ,
W. Köhler et al.

The essence of this direction was formulated by M. Wertheimer, who wrote: “... there are connections in which what happens as a whole is not derived from elements that supposedly exist in the form of separate pieces, then linked together, but, on the contrary, what manifests itself in a separate parts of this whole is determined by the internal structural law of this whole.”

That is, Gestalt psychology studies not phenomena, but the structure of connections, which is why it is sometimes called structural psychology (translated into Russian, the word “Gestalt” means “structure”).

K. Lewin is known for his work in the field of personality and interpersonal relationships.

He believed that the behavior of an individual can only be understood based on the holistic situation in which this individual finds himself.

The environment is determined by the subjective perception of the people operating in it.

The merit of Gestalt psychology is that it found modern approaches to the study of psychological problems, but the problems that caused the crisis were never fully resolved.

Psychoanalysis

was developed by the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist
S. Freud
,
which is why it is sometimes called “Freudianism”.
Founding a scientific theoretical direction in psychology, Freud proceeded from the analysis of his rich psychotherapeutic practice, thereby, as it were, returning psychology to its original subject: insight into the essence of the human soul.

The fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis are consciousness

and
the unconscious
.

It is the unconscious (the main of which is sexual attraction - libido) that plays a significant role in regulating human activity and behavior.

Censorship from the side of consciousness suppresses unconscious drives, but they “break through” in the form of slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting unpleasant things, dreams, and neurotic manifestations.

Psychoanalysis has become widespread not only in Europe, but also in the USA, where it is still popular to this day.

In the first years of Soviet power, this direction was also in demand in our country, but in the 30s. Against the general background of restrictions on psychological research (the resolution “On pedological perversions in the Narkompros system”), Freud’s teachings were also subjected to repression.

Up until the 60s. psychoanalysis was studied only from a critical perspective.

Only since the second half of the twentieth century has interest in psychoanalysis increased again, not only in Russia, but throughout the world.

So, none of the newly emerging psychological trends has completely resolved the contradictions that led to the crisis of psychology as a science.

Let's consider some modern psychological concepts that began to actively develop starting from the second half of the twentieth century.

Cognitive psychology arose on the basis of the development of computer science and cybernetics.

Representatives of the cognitive school - J. Piaget , W. Naiser, J. Bruner, R. Atkinson

and etc.

For a cognitive scientist, human cognitive processes are an analogue of a computer.

The main thing is to understand how a person learns about the world around him, and to do this, one should study the methods of forming knowledge, how cognitive processes arise and develop, what is the role of knowledge in human behavior, how this knowledge is organized in memory, how the intellect functions, how words and images are related in human memory and thinking.

The basic concept of cognitive psychology is the concept of “scheme”, which is a plan for collecting and processing information, perceived by the senses and stored in the human head.

The main conclusion reached by representatives of this direction is that in many life situations a person makes decisions mediated by the peculiarities of thinking.

Neo-Freudianism emerged from Freud's psychoanalysis.

Its representatives are A. Adler, K. Jung, K. Horney, E. Fromm

and etc.

What all these views have in common is the recognition of the significance of the unconscious in people’s lives and the desire to explain by this many human complexes.

Thus, A. Adler believed that a person is controlled by an inferiority complex, which he receives from the moment of birth, being a helpless creature.

In an effort to overcome this complex, a person acts intelligently, actively and expediently.

Goals are determined by the person himself, and based on this, cognitive processes, personality traits, and worldview are formed.

K. Jung's concept is also called analytical psychology.

He viewed the human psyche through the prism of macro-processes of culture, through the spiritual history of mankind.

There are two types of the unconscious: personal

and
collective
.

Personal

the unconscious is acquired through the accumulation of life experience,
the collective
is inherited and contains the experience accumulated by humanity.

Jung described the collective unconscious as archetypes that most often appear in myths and fairy tales, primitive forms of thinking, and images passed down from generation to generation.

The personal unconscious is close to a person, it is part of him; the collective is often perceived as something hostile, and therefore causing negative experiences, and sometimes neuroses.

Jung is credited with identifying such personality types as introverts and extroverts.

Introverts tend to find within themselves all the sources of vital energy and the reasons for what is happening, while extroverts find them in the external environment. In further studies, the identification of these two types was confirmed experimentally and became widely used for diagnostic purposes.

According to the personality typology developed by Jung, the following types are distinguished:

1) thinking (intellectual) - creates formulas, schemes, is prone to power, authoritarianism; mostly characteristic of men;

2) sensitive (sentimental, emotional) - responsiveness, the ability to empathize, a more feminine type predominates;

3) sensory - content with sensations, there are no deep experiences, adapts well to the outside world;

4) intuitive - is in a creative search, new ideas come as a result of insight, but they are not always productive and require improvement.

Each of the listed types can be either intro- or extroverted. K. Jung also introduced the concept of individualization, which means the development of a person as an individual, different from the community. This is the ultimate goal of the educational process, but at the initial stages a person must learn the minimum of collective norms that are necessary for his existence.

Another prominent representative of neo-Freudianism is E. Fromm

, who was the founder of humanistic psychoanalysis. E. Fromm believed that the human psyche and behavior are socially determined.

Pathology appears where individual freedom is suppressed. Such pathologies include: masochism, sadism, recluse, conformism, tendency to destruction.

Fromm divides all social systems into those that promote human freedom and those where human freedom is lost.

Genetic psychology. Its founder is the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget

,
who studied the mental development of a child, mainly his intellect, so in part he can be considered as a representative of cognitive psychology.
There are three periods in the process of cognitive development:

1) sensorimotor (from birth to approximately 1.5 years);

2) stage of specific operations (from 1.5–2 to 11–13 years);

3) stage of formal operations (after 11–13 years).

The onset of these stages can be accelerated or slowed down depending on the nature of learning and the influence of the environment.

Training will only be effective when it is started on time and takes into account the existing level.

J. Piaget wrote: “Whenever we prematurely teach a child something that he could discover for himself over time, we thereby deprive him of this, and therefore deprive him of a full understanding of this subject.

Feel

Sensations are mental processes that are mental reflections of individual states and properties of the external world, arising from direct influence on the senses, a person’s subjective perception of external and internal stimuli with the participation of the nervous system. In psychology, sensations are usually understood as the process of reflecting various properties of objects in the surrounding world.

Sensations have the following properties:

Modality is a qualitative indicator of sensations (for vision - color, saturation, for hearing - volume, timbre, etc.);
Intensity is a quantitative indicator of sensations;
Duration is a temporary indicator of sensations;
Localization is a spatial indicator.

There are several classifications of sensations. The first of them belongs to Aristotle. They identified five basic senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste and smell. But in the 19th century, due to the increase in the types of sensations, the need for a more serious classification arose. Today there are the following classifications:

Wundt's classification - depending on the mechanical, chemical and physical properties of stimuli;
Sherrington classification - based on the location of receptors: exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive sensations;
Head's classification - based on origin: protopathic and epicritic sensitivity.

Read more about sensations in the article “Sensation and Perception.”

Branches of modern psychology

A library-bibliographic classification can also give a certain idea of the main areas of modern psychology, knowledge of which can be useful for psychologists when working with literature on any problem in library catalogs.

Depending on the research method or psychological practice, such branches of psychology are distinguished as scientific and practical psychology, experimental psychology, mathematical psychology, psychodiagnostics, psychotherapy, and counseling psychology.

It is natural to assume that the listed branches of psychology, areas of psychological research and psychological practice should be reflected to one degree or another in the curricula of psychological education.

Which of the above branches of psychological science and practice should be included among the academic disciplines within a specific educational program? This depends on the following factors:

1. The authority of the relevant branch of knowledge in the scientific world. The more authority a science, field of scientific research or practice enjoys, the more

it is more likely to be included in the curriculum of the educational program.

2. The goals of the educational program and understanding of the significance of each discipline for psychological education. The more the importance of a given science or branch of knowledge for the implementation of the goals of a given educational program is realized, the more likely it is that it will be included in the number of academic disciplines.

3. Teachers who can teach courses in relevant disciplines. An academic discipline is introduced into the curriculum only if there are teaching staff with the appropriate qualifications; The professional specialization of a teacher working at the university and the area of his scientific interests contribute to the inclusion of the corresponding academic discipline in the curriculum.

4. Real resources of teaching time within the framework of this educational program. Given the limited time allocated to any educational program, the principle “the more the better” is inappropriate, since it leads to overload. Therefore, despite the importance of individual academic subjects, they are not included in the curriculum.

5. Methodological equipment of the relevant discipline. It is advisable to include a scientific discipline or branch of knowledge in the curriculum if there are certain teaching aids, although there are a number of cases when the inclusion of a discipline in the curriculum has become an incentive for the development of appropriate teaching aids.

Traditionally, the curriculum of higher educational institutions includes those disciplines that have certain teaching traditions and demonstrate a high level of scientific knowledge. This set of disciplines is quite typical, so the content of basic psychological courses in many countries is quite similar. Specific psychological disciplines studied by students in various educational programs in Russia, Europe and America will be discussed in the following sections of the book.

Also read:

Phenomena and definition of attention Conflicts in the implementation of the “organizational imperative” and in the process of developing and making management decisions Information theory of emotions (P.V. Simonov) Consciousness and the unconscious (C.G. Jung) Magical (magical) thinking

Perception

Perception is a cognitive process that forms the subject’s picture of the world. A mental operation that reflects an object or phenomenon that affects the receptors of the sense organs. Perception is a complex function that determines the reception and transformation of information and forms a subjective image of an object for the subject. Through attention, a whole object is discovered, its special features and content are highlighted, and a sensory image is formed, i.e. comprehension occurs.

Perception is divided into four levels:

Detection (perceptual action) – image formation;
Discrimination (perceptual action) is the perception of the image itself;
Identification (recognition action) - identification of an object with existing images;
Identification (identification action) – categorization of an object.

Perception also has its own properties: structure, objectivity, apperception, selectivity, constancy, meaningfulness. More information about perception can be found in the articles “Sensation and Perception” and “Mental Processes: Types and Brief Description.”

Attention

Attention is the selective perception of a particular object. It is expressed in how a person relates to an object. Attention can often be backed by such psychological characteristics of the individual as need, interest, focus, attitudes and others. Attention also determines how a person navigates the world around him and how this world is reflected in his psyche. The object of attention is always in the center of consciousness, and the rest is perceived more weakly. But the focus of attention tends to change.

The objects of attention are, as a rule, what has the greatest significance for a person at the moment. Maintaining attention for a long time on an object is called concentration.

Attention functions:

Detection
Selective attention
Divided attention

Attention can be voluntary and involuntary. It differs in form into:

External – aimed at the outside world;
Internal – aimed at the inner world of a person;
Motor

Properties of attention: direction, distribution, volume, intensity, concentration, switchability, stability.

All of them are closely related to human activities. And depending on its purpose, they can become more or less intense.

Read more about attention in our lesson “Attention and Memory” from the course on memory development.

Practical psychology

A special place in the classification of branches of psychology is given to practical psychology - a system of services aimed at providing psychological assistance to the population.
The main goal of this direction is to create psychological and social conditions suitable for a person in all spheres of life. Its structure includes the following areas and services:

family and social protection;
health systems;
education systems;
management, political activity;
practical legal psychology and sociology;
socio-psychological service of the army;
practical psychology of work and career guidance;
practical psychology and sociology of economics and business;
psychology and pedagogy of sports.

Since the tasks of the main branches of psychology often overlap, and the methods of providing assistance often coincide, there are quite close connections between them, which determine a more complete study of the subject of research in certain conditions.

Representation

In the process of representation, mental reconstruction of images of phenomena or objects that do not currently affect the senses occurs. There are two meanings of this concept. The first denotes the image of a phenomenon or object that was previously perceived, but is not perceived now. The second describes the reproduction of images itself. As mental phenomena, ideas can be somewhat similar to perception, hallucinations and pseudohallucinations, or different from them.

Views are classified in several ways:

According to leading analyzers: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and temperature representations;
According to the degree of generalization - single, general and schematized;
By origin - based on perception, thinking or imagination;
According to the degree of volitional efforts - involuntary and voluntary.

Representations have the following properties: generality, fragmentation, clarity, instability.

Read more about ideas in psychology in our article “Mental processes: types and brief characteristics.”

Memory

Memory is a mental function and a type of mental activity designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store data about events in the surrounding world and the body’s reactions for a long period of time, and use it.

The following memory processes are distinguished:

Memorization;
Storage;
Play;
Forgetting.

Memory is also divided into typologies:

By sensory modality - visual, kinesthetic, sound, gustatory, pain;
In terms of content – emotional, figurative, motor;
According to the organization of memorization - procedural, semantic, episodic;
According to time characteristics – ultra-short-term, short-term, long-term;
According to physiological characteristics - long-term and short-term;
According to the availability of funds - non-mediated and indirect;
According to the presence of a goal - involuntary and voluntary;
According to the level of development - verbal-logical, figurative, emotional and motor.

You will find ways and techniques for developing memory in a separate training on our website.

Principles of Psychological Science

It is customary to highlight the following principles of modern psychology:

determinism;
unity of consciousness and activity;
mental development;
survey (open/closed);
conversation method;
interview method;
expert assessments.

The principles of the science under consideration are provisions that can determine the understanding of the human psyche, how it was formed, what its system of functioning and forms of manifestation are.

Many sciences, such as philosophy and physiology, sociology and political science, economics and aesthetics, contributed to the development of principles. Everything works in collaboration. At one time, the Soviet psychologist A. N. Leontyev made a comparison using this example: food entering the stomach is determined by social circumstances, and the digestion process is part of the law of physiology.

Imagination

Imagination is the ability of a person’s consciousness to create and manage ideas, ideas and images. It plays a major role in mental processes such as planning, modeling, play, memory and creativity. This is the basis of a person’s visual-figurative thinking, which allows him to solve certain problems and understand the situation without practical intervention. A type of imagination is fantasy.

There is also a classification of imagination:

By degree of direction - active and passive imagination;
According to the results - reproductive and creative imagination;
By type of images – abstract and concrete;
According to the degree of volitional effort - unintentional and intentional;
Techniques: typification, schematization, hyperbolization, agglutination.

Mechanisms of imagination:

Typing;
Accenting;
Schematization;
Agglutination;
Hyperbolization.

Imagination is directly related to creativity. Sensitivity to emerging problems, ease of combining things, and observation skills contribute to finding creative solutions. The characteristics of imagination can be considered accuracy, originality, flexibility and fluency of thinking.

Read more about imagination in psychology in the article “Mental processes: types and brief description.” In addition, the lesson “Development of Creative Imagination” from our course on creative thinking is devoted to the problems of developing imagination.

Work of specialists

In all industries, the psychologist faces a difficult task

Firstly, it is important for him to take into account the position of a person in a particular field of work. Secondly, it is necessary not to disturb your subjective psyche

Thus, the specialist spends most of his time studying, and in some cases, taking the working industry as a stakeholder to optimize a group of people (team). Over time, the specialist becomes a participant in the process and an employee of a team, since it is he who puts pressure on the work of a group of people. Therefore, psychologists are in demand in various industrial sectors and organizations.

Large companies hire several psychologists for permanent work. There are cases when additional professional persons are invited to join the main group, for example, during the reorganization of a company. Such a group sets tasks for itself and then carries them out. In such industries, his main task is tactics and efficiency.

But you can often find distrust in leadership positions towards psychological help. Therefore, an applied psychologist faces a serious task and a forced measure to take responsibility for an accurate strategy of issues, establishing a plan and options for subsequent actions, while simultaneously working on the culture of management positions, customers and ordinary workers.

Practical psychology happens a little differently. Special practice is based on working with a ward who completely trusts the specialist. Then the psychologist himself sets certain tasks and a study strategy, followed by intervention in the ward’s problem.

Thinking

In general psychology there are many definitions of the thinking process. According to one of the most popular definitions:

Thinking is the highest stage of human information processing and the process of establishing connections between phenomena and objects of the external world.

It is the highest level of human cognition, as a process of reflection of the surrounding reality in his brain.

Thinking is divided into:

Abstract-logical;
Visual-figurative;
Specific subject;
Visually effective.

And the main forms of thinking are:

Concept – thoughts that highlight and generalize phenomena and objects;
Judgment - denial or affirmation of something;
Inference - conclusion.

These and other components of the thinking process are discussed in our logical thinking training.

Speech

Speech is a form of communication between people through linguistic structures. In this process, thoughts are formed and formulated using language, and the received speech information is perceived and understood. Speech is a form of existence of human language, because. speech is language in action.

Language (speech) performs the following functions:

A tool for intellectual activity;
Method of communication;
A way of existence, as well as the assimilation and transfer of experience.

Speech is the most important part of human activity, which contributes to knowledge of the world around us and the transfer of knowledge and experience to others. Being a means of expressing thoughts, it is one of the main mechanisms of human thinking. It depends on the form of communication and is thus divided into oral (speaking/listening) and written (writing/reading).

Speech has the following properties:

Content – the number and significance of expressed aspirations, feelings and thoughts;
Clarity – correctness;
Expressiveness – emotional coloring and richness of language;
Effectiveness is the influence exerted on other people, their feelings, thoughts, emotions, etc.

You can read more about speaking and writing in our trainings on public speaking and writing.

Emotions

Emotions are mental processes that reflect the subject’s attitude to possible or real situations. Emotions should not be confused with such emotional processes as feelings, affects and moods. To date, emotions have been poorly studied and are understood differently by many experts. For this reason, the definition given above cannot be considered the only correct one.

Characteristics of emotions are:

Tone (valence) – positive or negative emotions;
Intensity – strong or weak emotions;
Stenicity – influence on human activity: sthenic (inducing action) and asthenic (reducing activity);
Content – reflects different facets of the meaning of situations that arouse emotions.

Emotions in most cases manifest themselves in physiological reactions, because the latter depend on them. But today there is debate about the fact that intentional physiological states can cause certain emotions.

These and other issues of understanding and managing emotions are discussed in our acting training.

Branches of applied psychology

Applied psychology studies psychological problems characteristic of certain areas of life or professional activity of people. The branches of applied psychology include:

pedagogical psychology;

medical psychology;

psychology of art;

psychology of religion;

family psychology, etc.

Educational psychologyMedical psychologyLegal psychology

Economic psychology studies issues related to economic relations between people. Experts in economic psychology study problems of the market, supply and demand, and the psychology of advertising

An important place in economic psychology is occupied by trade psychology, which studies the psychological problems of interaction between seller and buyer, customer service

Psychology of workPolitical psychologyPsychology of sportsPsychology of art

Psychology of religion is a direction of research into psychological problems of religious consciousness, ideas and feelings of believers, as well as religious traditions, rituals, and cults.

Family psychology

Will

Will is the ability of a person to consciously control his psyche and actions. The achievement of set goals and results can be considered a manifestation of will. It has many positive qualities that influence the success of human activity. The main volitional qualities are considered to be persistence, courage, patience, independence, focus, determination, initiative, endurance, courage, self-control and others. Will encourages action, allows a person to manage desires and realize them, develops self-control and strength of character.

Signs of an act of will:

Efforts of will in many cases are aimed at overcoming one’s weaknesses;
Performing any action without receiving pleasure from this process;
Availability of an action plan;
Putting effort into doing something.

Read more about will in psychology in the articles “Mental processes: types and brief description” and “Will and volitional actions.”

Mental properties and states

Mental properties are stable mental phenomena that influence what a person does and give his socio-psychological characteristics. The structure of mental properties includes abilities, character, temperament and orientation.

Orientation is a conglomerate of needs, goals and motives of a person that determine the nature of his activities. It expresses the whole meaning of a person’s actions and his worldview.

Temperament gives characteristics to a person’s activity and behavior. It can manifest itself in increased sensitivity, emotionality, resistance to stress, the ability to adapt to external conditions or the lack thereof, etc.

Character is a set of traits and qualities that are regularly manifested in a person. There are always individual characteristics, but there are also characteristics that are characteristic of all people - purposefulness, initiative, discipline, activity, determination, perseverance, endurance, courage, will, etc.

Abilities are the mental properties of a person, reflecting his characteristics, which allow a person to successfully engage in certain types of activities. Abilities are distinguished between special (for a specific type of activity) and general (for most types of activity).

Mental states are a system of psychological characteristics that provide a person’s subjective perception of the world around him. Mental states influence how mental processes proceed, and when regularly repeated, they can become part of a person’s personality - its property.

Mental states are related to each other. But they can still be classified. The most common ones are:

Personality states;
States of consciousness;
States of intelligence.

Types of mental states are divided according to the following criteria:

According to the source of formation - conditioned by the situation or personally;
According to the degree of expression - superficial and deep;
By emotional coloring – positive, neutral and negative;
By duration – short-term, medium-duration, long-term;
According to the degree of awareness - conscious and unconscious;
According to the level of manifestation - physiological, psychophysiological, psychological.

The following mental states are common to most people:

Optimal performance;
Tension;
Interest;
Inspiration;
Fatigue;
Monotony;
Stress;
Relaxation;
Dream;
Wakefulness.

Other common mental states include love, anger, fear, surprise, admiration, depression, detachment and others.

Read more about mental properties and states in the article “Properties of Mental States.”

Levels of practical branches of psychology

Practical problems of science exist at different stages.

Research tasks. A detailed consideration of episodes of personality development for the further formation of the methodological foundations of work in the practice of a psychologist. Application of various knowledge, methods, and means for professional work in conditions of different nature.
Applied ones are identified according to the need for psychological supply of the best work of the organization (company, institution) of labor of the working force as a whole and separately, implying the preparation of programs for subsequent training. The basis of the educational material includes the creation of textbooks, manuals, recommendations from specialists, methods, training/retraining programs, the work of psychology services in practice, and design of documentation.
Practical tasks are based on specific problems based on the professional practice of a psychologist, work in multidisciplinary organizations, centers - as a means of providing specific assistance to individuals in the institution.

A number of main subjects:

Abnormal. Based on the study of abnormal human behavior and psychopathology. The main task is to study the range of mental disorders, for example, obsession, depression, and much more. Clinical psychologists, as well as psychotherapists, often have to deal with these types of deviations. Behavior. Behaviorism (behavioral psychology) is a theoretical training based on the idea that all types of behavior are formed by the technique of conditioning, that is, the acquisition of new qualities due to a stimulus.

Biopsychological branch. Studying the influence of the brain on human behavior. In other words, this branch is called physiological. Cognitive section

This type studies the purely internal human state, motivation, overcoming problems and resolving issues, human attention, thinking, and decision-making ability. This section has been constantly under development since its opening. Comparison area

Observation of changes in the actions of an animal, based on which one can study a person more seriously.

Cross culture. The influence of culture on a person. IACCP (International Association of Cross Culture) began in the last century, in 1972, and to this day the field is growing and continuing its work. Section of the study of human development. This section is devoted to the study of the peculiarities of human formation at the stage of the entire life period. The main thing is to understand the reasons why human behavior can change over time. This point, in principle, studies all types of industries related to the formation of a person’s personality. Pedagogy and psychology. The area determined in the process of education and training. This industry has already been discussed a little higher. Experimental. The use of scientific methods in the study of the brain or human behavior. Most methods also use other types of sections for a more extensive study of the issue.

Judicial. Briefly, this section studies everything that is combined in the legislation. Psychologists are entrusted with many cases related to the law and its violation, for example, establishing the abuse of minor children. Health. The influence of scientific branches, biology, systems of action, social circumstances of character - on the state of human health. In another way – “medical”. Personal industry. A study of thought processes (thinking) and emotions that make humans different from animals. Sociality. This section examines a person’s actions in the social sphere, interaction, leadership qualities, non-verbal communication, and how the environment can influence a person.

Motivation

Motivation is the drive to perform an action. This process controls human behavior and determines its direction, stability, activity and organization. Thanks to motivation, a person can satisfy his needs.

There are several types of motivation:

External – due to external conditions;
Internal – due to internal circumstances (content of activity);
Positive – based on positive incentives;
Negative – based on negative incentives;
Sustainable – determined by human needs;
Unstable - requires additional incentive.

Motivation can be of the following types:

From something (basic type);
To something (basic type);
Individual;
Group;
Cognitive.

There are certain motives that in most cases guide people:

Self-affirmation;
Identification with other people;
Power;
Self-development;
Achieving something;
Social significance;
The desire to be in the company of certain people;
Negative factors.

Motivation issues are discussed in more detail in the fourth lesson of this course, as well as in the article “How Motivation Works.”

Temperament and character

Temperament is a complex of mental characteristics of a personality associated with its dynamic characteristics (that is, with tempo, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states). The basis of character formation.

The following main types of temperament are distinguished:

Phlegmatic – signs: emotional stability, perseverance, calmness, regularity;
Choleric – signs: frequent mood swings, emotionality, imbalance;
Sanguine – signs: liveliness, mobility, productivity;
Melancholic – signs: impressionability, vulnerability.

Different types of temperament have different properties that can have a positive or negative impact on a person's personality. Temperament type does not affect abilities, but it does affect how people express themselves in life. Depending on temperament there are:

Perception, thinking, attention and other mental processes;
Stability and plasticity of mental phenomena;
Pace and rhythm of actions;
Emotions, will and other mental properties;
Direction of mental activity.

Character is a complex of permanent mental properties of a person that determine his behavior. Character traits form the properties of a person that determine his lifestyle and behavior.

Personality traits vary across groups. There are four in total:

Attitude towards people - respect, sociability, callousness, etc.;
Attitude to activity – conscientiousness, diligence, responsibility, etc.;
Attitude towards oneself – modesty, arrogance, self-criticism, selfishness, etc.;
Attitude to things - care, accuracy, etc.

Each person has a character unique to him, the properties and characteristics of which are determined, for the most part, by social factors. There is also always an accentuation of character - strengthening of its individual traits. It should also be noted that there is a close relationship between character and temperament, because temperament influences the development of certain character traits and the manifestation of its characteristics, and at the same time, using some of its character traits, a person, if necessary, can control the manifestations of his temperament.

Read more about character and temperament in the third lesson of this course and in the article “Character and Temperament.”

All of the above, of course, is not comprehensive information about what general human psychology is. This lesson is intended only to give a general idea and indicate directions for further study.

Continuous communication

The entire chain of psychological branches has an inextricable connection with each other. It is this close connection that helps to study methods, experiments, and schemes in more depth. For example, the pedagogical type is based on the study of problems with the upbringing or education of children. Meanwhile, general psychology helps it with its knowledge about the entire principle of development of the human psyche, about the procedural and differential part of science - patterns and options, thanks to which it is possible to identify individual criteria of the psyche and create a method of individual approach.

In turn, the age-related type of science helps with knowledge about the principle of development of the mental personality at different stages of age, a way to control the formation, without which it is impossible to build more than one method of teaching or educating the individual. Next, the social type has the necessary knowledge for communication and their characteristics, and as you know, any learning is a process of education through communication and the formation of groups. And with the help of a special scientific branch, students are selected for special educational centers for the subsequent process of training and education. And the science of labor is the main component of pedagogy.

Other areas used in the branches of psychology

From a theoretical point of view, it is permissible to single out any industry, but practice shows that this is not always possible. As a cheat sheet, you can remember a short series of subtypes.

Space. In this form, they study the readiness for work of the future cosmonaut, how prepared the person is for the future flight. In addition, they establish a number of tips that will help you quickly adapt to work. After the flights, the astronaut undergoes a course of psychological rehabilitation and other important procedures.
Aviation section – work with pilots, dispatchers, and other aviation employees.
Industrial and organizational branch of psychology. In some cases, other branches of science are added to the industrial type, for example, the field of management, in other words, private activity.
The branch of psychology aimed at medicine and pathopsychology. The main action is to build a connection between workers in medicine and psychology, but most often specialists study patients, not their doctors.
Pedagogy. Criteria and features of teaching children and teaching adults. Consequences of advanced and continuous education. For example, the school section.
The study of jurisprudence, the legal branch of science. A very serious industry, since it involves the study of rather difficult issues outside the rule of law. The fight against corruption and permissiveness is underway (this also applies to law enforcement agencies).
Tourism. The science that studies human leisure.
Sports section of science. Not so long ago, this branch was widely popular, especially after the Olympics in the USSR. Now it is losing its position, but it does not cease to be an industry.
Scientific research aimed at advertising and mass and impact.
A type of policy study that has recently gained popularity. Especially during the election period.
The military industry has a wide sector of activity. This can be the work of a specialist with the military in peacetime or at points of military action. Its goal is the moral preparation of a soldier for different occasions.