Experience, experiment, children's experimentation. Characteristics of the conceptual series

Man and the characteristics of his personality have been the object of interest and study of the great minds of mankind for centuries. And from the very beginning of the development of psychological science to the present day, people have been able to develop and significantly improve their skills in this difficult but exciting matter. Therefore, now, in order to obtain reliable data in the study of the characteristics of the human psyche and his personality, people use a large number of different methods and methods of research in psychology. And one of the methods that has gained the greatest popularity and has proven itself from the most practical side is a psychological experiment.

We decided to consider individual examples of the most famous, interesting and even inhumane and shocking socio-psychological experiments that were carried out on people, regardless of the general material, due to their importance and significance. But at the beginning of this part of our course, we will once again remember what a psychological experiment is and what its features are, and we will also briefly touch on the types and characteristics of the experiment.

What is an experiment?

An experiment in psychology is a certain experiment that is carried out under special conditions in order to obtain psychological data through the intervention of a researcher in the process of the subject’s activity. Both a specialist scientist and a simple layman can act as a researcher during an experiment.

The main characteristics and features of the experiment are:

• The ability to change any variable and create new conditions to identify new patterns;
• Possibility to choose a starting point;
• Possibility of repeated implementation;
• The ability to include other methods of psychological research in the experiment: test, survey, observation and others.

The experiment itself can be of several types: laboratory, natural, pilot, explicit, hidden, etc.

If you have not studied the first lessons of our course, then you will probably be interested to know that you can learn more about experiments and other research methods in psychology in our lesson “Methods of Psychology.” Now we move on to consider the most famous psychological experiments.

The most famous psychological experiments

1. Hawthorne experiment
2. Milgram experiment
3. Stanford prison experiment
4. Ringelmann experiment
5. Experiment “Me and Others”
6. "Monstrous" experiment
7. Project "Aversia"
8. Landis experiments
9. Little Albert
10. Acquired (learned) helplessness
11. Boy raised like a girl

1

Types of experiment:

1. Laboratory experiment –

is carried out in deliberately created conditions (specially equipped room), using means of recording the obtained data, the actions of the subject are determined by the instructions.

2.Natural experiment –

is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter almost does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they unfold on their own. Before starting his work, the researcher gets to know the children and takes an active part in their lives, so the classes conducted by the experimenter do not cause concern.

3. Formative experiment –

its idea is to artificially recreate (model) the process of mental development. The goal is to study the conditions and patterns of origin of one or another mental neoplasm.

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Hawthorne experiment

The name Hawthorne experiment refers to a series of socio-psychological experiments that were carried out from 1924 to 1932 in the American city of Hawthorne at the Western Electrics factory by a group of researchers led by psychologist Elton Mayo. The prerequisite for the experiment was a decrease in labor productivity among factory workers. Studies that have been conducted on this issue have not been able to explain the reasons for this decline. Because The factory management was interested in increasing productivity; the scientists were given complete freedom of action. Their goal was to identify the relationship between physical working conditions and worker performance.

After much research, scientists came to the conclusion that labor productivity is influenced by social conditions and, mainly, by the emergence of workers’ interest in the work process, as a consequence of their awareness of their participation in the experiment. The mere fact that workers are allocated to a separate group and special attention from scientists and managers is shown to them already affects the effectiveness of workers. By the way, during the Hawthorne experiment, the Hawthorne effect was discovered, and the experiment itself increased the authority of psychological research as scientific methods.

Knowing about the results of the Hawthorne experiment, as well as the effect, we can apply this knowledge in practice, namely, have a positive impact on our activities and the activities of other people. Parents can improve their children's development, teachers can improve student achievement, and employers can improve their employees' performance and productivity. To do this, you can try to announce that some kind of experiment will be taking place, and the people to whom you are announcing this are an important component of it. For the same purpose, you can apply the introduction of any innovations. But you can learn more about this here.

You can find out more about the Hawthorne Experiment here.

2

Experiment as a research method

Experiment is one of the main methods of empirical research because of the importance of demonstrating cause-and-effect relationships. The experiment has been known for a long time and is used in practice at all stages of the development of science.

However, its use as a central method of scientific knowledge is recent.

In the Middle Ages, the importance of experiment was already widely recognized, but it was in the second half of the 16th century that Galileo Galilei moved from this recognition to the quest to design and organize experiments.

For Galileo, experimentation was the central point of the scientific method, from the theoretical approach to the approach to the method and to the development of experimental data.

In fact, the experiment has been studied extensively over time and has generated much debate.

Different authors have interpreted it in different ways and therefore come to different definitions regarding the concept and sometimes even contradictions.

At present, when scientific activity has been enriched from different sides, experimentation continues to acquire transcendental significance, since with its help mechanisms can be used that make it possible to isolate the phenomenon being studied, repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under fixed conditions and are subject to control, and, finally, systematically vary, look for different combinations to get the desired result.

The concept of experimentation involves questions that are asked to reveal what is not obvious. The purpose of the experiment is to collect reliable information on a specific topic.

In other words, the experiment is designed in such a way that we can make a discovery of something unknown or sense a previously hidden relationship, and its purpose is to increase the amount of data we know about the object or phenomenon being tested.

Experiments are carried out using scientific methods. Increasing confidence in the accuracy of the results is important to minimize experimental bias errors, and if the experiment is poorly designed, you may not get the right answer. You may not even get a definite answer!

In a simple and adapted way, the scientific method can be divided into these 5 steps

Milgram experiment

The Milgram experiment was first described by an American social psychologist in 1963. His goal was to find out how much suffering some people can cause to others, and innocent people, provided that this is their job responsibilities. Participants in the experiment were told that the effect of pain on memory was being studied. And the participants were the experimenter himself, a real subject (“teacher”), and an actor who played the role of another subject (“student”). The “student” had to memorize words from the list, and the “teacher” had to test his memory and, in case of an error, punish him with an electric shock, each time increasing its strength.

Initially, the Milgram experiment was conducted to find out how the inhabitants of Germany could take part in the destruction of huge numbers of people during the Nazi terror. As a result, the experiment clearly demonstrated the inability of people (in this case, “teachers”) to resist a boss (researcher) who ordered the “work” to continue, despite the fact that the “student” was suffering. As a result of the experiment, it was revealed that the need to obey authorities is deeply rooted in the human mind, even under conditions of internal conflict and moral suffering. Milgram himself noted that under the pressure of authority, adequate adults are capable of going very far.

If we think about it for a while, we will see that, in fact, the results of Milgram's experiment tell us, among other things, about the inability of a person to independently decide what to do and how to behave when someone is “above him” higher in rank, status, etc. The manifestation of these features of the human psyche, unfortunately, very often leads to disastrous results. In order for our society to be called truly civilized, people must learn to always be guided by human attitudes towards each other, as well as by ethical standards and moral principles that their conscience dictates to them, and not the authority and power of other people.

You can read the details of Milgram's experiment here.

3

Positive and negative results of experiments

Everyone likes to get positive results from experiments, but they are actually in the minority, especially when it comes to science. Positive results confirm the original hypothesis. Negative or “secondary” results refute it.

These negative results lead to the next stage of the study. Making the results public has a positive impact on the scientific community. The goal is to make these experiments available to the rest of the community, avoiding wasting time and money for the rest of the scientific community and promoting much faster scientific progress.

Stanford prison experiment

The Stanford Prison Experiment was conducted by American psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1971 at Stanford. It examined a person’s reaction to the conditions of imprisonment, restriction of freedom and the influence of an imposed social role on his behavior. Funding was provided by the US Navy to explain the causes of conflict in the Marine Corps and Navy correctional facilities. Men were selected for the experiment, some of whom became “prisoners”, and the other part became “guards”.

The “guards” and “prisoners” very quickly got used to their roles, and sometimes very dangerous situations arose in the makeshift prison. A third of the “guards” showed sadistic tendencies, and the “prisoners” received severe moral trauma. The experiment, designed to last two weeks, was stopped after just six days, because... it started to get out of control. The Stanford prison experiment is often compared to the Milgram experiment described above.

In real life, you can see how any justifying ideology supported by the state and society can make people overly susceptible and submissive, and the power of authorities has a strong impact on the personality and psyche of a person. Observe yourself and you will see clear evidence of how certain conditions and situations influence your internal state and shape your behavior more strongly than the internal characteristics of your personality. It is very important to be able to always remain yourself and remember your values ​​in order not to be influenced by external factors. And this can only be done with the help of constant self-control and awareness, which, in turn, require regular and systematic training.

Details of the Stanford Prison Experiment can be found by following this link.

4

Classification of experiments

There are quite a lot of methods and types of experiments, because their functions and implementation are very different. If we summarize all the views, the classification picture will look like this:

1. In reality and completeness - real (concrete) and mental, otherwise abstract or imaginary. The latter is ideal when there are no external influences on the dependent variable except one independent variable; this is not possible in life; infinite, covering all possible situations for the entire population under study; impeccable, combining the features of the previous two.
2. Purpose - research, examination or diagnostic, demonstration.
3. By type of impact on the object - internal and external.
4. According to the level of study - preliminary, main, control.
5. According to the degree of intervention of the researcher in the life of the subject, i.e. conditions for conducting the experiment - laboratory (artificial), natural (field), formative, as well as duplicating reality and improving.
6. According to the number of independent variables - bivariate and multivariate.
7. Whenever possible, change the independent variable—provoked and natural.
8. According to the number of objects taking part - group and individual.
9. According to the method of identifying connections between variables - intraprocedural (internal connections), interprocedural (external connections), cross-procedural (connections intersect).
10. By type of change in the independent variable - quantitative and qualitative.

Ringelmann experiment

The Ringelmann experiment (also known as the Ringelmann effect) was first described in 1913 and conducted in 1927 by French professor of agricultural engineering Maximilian Ringelmann. This experiment was carried out out of curiosity, but revealed a pattern of reduction in people's productivity depending on the increase in the number of people in the group in which they work. For the experiment, a random selection of different numbers of people was carried out to perform a certain job. In the first case it was weight lifting, and in the second it was tug of war.

One person could lift a maximum weight of, for example, 50 kg. Therefore, two people should have been able to lift 100 kg, because the result should increase in direct proportion. But the effect was different: two people were able to lift only 93% of the weight that they could lift 100% of individually. When the group of people was increased to eight people, they only lifted 49% of the weight. In the case of tug of war, the effect was the same: increasing the number of people reduced the percentage of efficiency.

We can conclude that when we rely only on our own strengths, we make maximum efforts to achieve results, and when we work in a group, we often rely on someone else. The problem lies in the passivity of actions, and this passivity is more social than physical. Solitary work gives us the reflex to achieve the maximum from ourselves, but in group work the result is not so significant. Therefore, if you need to do something very important, then it is best to rely only on yourself and not count on the help of other people, because then you will give it your all and achieve your goal, and what is important to other people is not so important to you.

More information about the Ringelmann experiment/effect can be found here.

5

Examples of experiments

Let's consider the description of several psychological examples, because

The field of psychology and sociology often attracts public attention. Despite the fact that many of them look very dubious from an ethical point of view, they help people determine which methods of behavior towards others are evil and should be removed from our lives in the future, and which ones help the development and fuller self-realization of the individual in life. society

Hawthorne effect

This name was given to a series of socio-psychological experiments conducted by a group of scientists in the USA in the 20-30s of the 20th century at the Western Electrics factory. It was necessary to determine the reason for the decline in worker productivity. It turned out that the development depends on the fact that the subjects grew in their own eyes due to the increased attention to them from the researchers and felt themselves in a higher social status. It has been said that productivity is influenced by the perception of the prestige of one's work and social connections in the group. However, these results were later considered controversial and obtained by chance. The workers simply considered the psychologists to be spies of the company management and were afraid of getting laid off.

Milgram experiment

Described by a Yale University psychologist in 1963. It showed how great the degree of subordination and obedience to “authority” is among people, despite conflict with personal beliefs and moral suffering. The subject was ordered to inflict physical pain with an electric shock on another person who was innocent of anything (his role was played by an actor, but the second participant in the experiment did not know about this). It turned out that if her job duties include inflicting pain, then even the moral torment of such “work” is not a hindrance to her. The need to obey those who are higher in status is very deeply rooted in people's minds.

It is interesting that initially these experiments were carried out in order to understand what motivated the Germans who served in Nazi concentration camps. The author intended to go to Germany, since according to tradition it is believed that the Germans are more disciplined and prone to submission, but Stanley Milgram soon found out that the Americans in this regard are no different from the representatives of the German people. The fear of disobeying the boss turned out to be expressed equally in everyone.

Ringelmann effect

It was described by a French professor of agricultural engineering in 1913. Ringelman found that the larger the group, the lower the individual productivity of each of those participating in it. This is due to the fact that in a group personal responsibility is reduced, because failure can be transferred to the group as a whole, and not to an individual employee who performs poorly. When a person works alone, he gives his best, because only he will have to answer for what he has done.

Monstrous experiment

The name speaks for itself. His idea came to the mind of American scientists from the University of Iowa in 1939. They wanted to know whether it was possible to induce stuttering in absolutely healthy children. 22 children were selected from an orphanage and divided into two groups. In the first group, children were praised for good reading and correct speech, while in the second they were scolded and ridiculed in every possible way. As a result, participants in the second group developed pronunciation defects and shyness. For some, the problems persisted until the end of their lives. The results of the experiments were hidden from the public so as not to spoil the reputation of the experimenters and not to compare their activities with Nazi experiments on people during the war.

Experiment “Me and Others”

“Me and Others” is a 1971 Soviet popular science film that features filming of several psychological experiments, the progress of which is commented on by a narrator. The experiments in the film reflect the influence of the opinions of others on a person and his ability to think out what he was unable to remember. All experiments were prepared and conducted by psychologist Valeria Mukhina.

Experiments shown in the film:

• “Assault”: subjects must describe the details of an impromptu attack and recall the characteristics of the attackers.
• “Scientist or killer”: subjects are shown a portrait of the same person, having previously imagined him as a scientist or a killer. Participants must create a psychological portrait of this person.
• “Both white”: black and white pyramids are placed on the table in front of the child participants. Three of the children say that both pyramids are white, testing the fourth for suggestibility. The results of the experiment are very interesting. Later, this experiment was carried out with the participation of adults.
• “Sweet salty porridge”: three quarters of the porridge in the plate is sweet, and one quarter is salty. Three children are given porridge and they say it is sweet. The fourth is given a salty “plot”. Task: check what a child who has tried the salty “plot” will name the porridge when the other three say it is sweet, thereby checking the importance of public opinion.
• “Portraits”: participants are shown 5 portraits and asked to find out if there are two photos of the same person among them. At the same time, all participants, except one who came later, must say that two different photos are photos of the same person. The essence of the experiment is also to find out how the opinion of the majority influences the opinion of one.
• “Shooting Range”: in front of the student there are two targets. If he shoots on the left, then a ruble will fall out, which he can take for himself, if on the right, then the ruble will go to the needs of the class. More hit marks were initially made on the left target. You need to find out which target the student will shoot at if he sees that many of his comrades were shooting at the left target.

The vast majority of the results from the experiments in the film showed that people (children and adults alike) care deeply about what others say and their opinions. It’s the same in life: very often we give up our beliefs and opinions when we see that the opinions of others do not coincide with our own. That is, we can say that we are losing ourselves among the others. For this reason, many people do not achieve their goals, betray their dreams, and follow the lead of the public. You need to be able to maintain your individuality in any conditions and always think only with your own head. After all, first of all, it will serve you well.

You can read about the film “Me and Others” in more detail, as well as watch the film itself on this page.

By the way, in 2010 a remake of this film was made, in which the same experiments were presented. If you wish, you can find both of these films online.

6

conclusions

There are differences between experience and experiment. They are not so significant, but they have an impact on the progress of execution and preparation for work. Their main goal is to confirm already known information. People take an active part in them, do not conduct simple observation, but interact with the object, determine its direction, the environment in which it is located, the start and end time of work, and stages. The experiment is designed to confirm the hypothesis, and experience is necessary to consolidate theoretical knowledge with practical actions. The experiment is carried out 1-2 times, experiments can be carried out indefinitely. The goals of the experiment are specified in advance. Experience does not have strictly defined tasks; it is carried out spontaneously.

"Monstrous" experiment

A monstrous experiment in its essence was conducted in 1939 in the USA by psychologist Wendell Johnson and his graduate student Mary Tudor in order to find out how susceptible children are to suggestion. 22 orphans from the city of Davenport were selected for the experiment. They were divided into two groups. Children from the first group were told how wonderful and correct they spoke, and were praised in every possible way. The other half of the children were convinced that their speech was full of shortcomings, and they were called pathetic stutterers.

The results of this monstrous experiment were also monstrous: the majority of children from the second group, who did not have any speech defects, began to develop and take root all the symptoms of stuttering, which persisted throughout their entire lives. The experiment itself was hidden from the public for a very long time so as not to damage Dr. Johnson’s reputation. Then, nevertheless, people learned about this experiment. Later, by the way, similar experiments were carried out by the Nazis on concentration camp prisoners.

Looking at the life of modern society, you are sometimes amazed at how parents raise their children these days. You can often see how they scold their children, insult them, call them names, and call them very unpleasant names. It is not surprising that young children grow up to be people with broken psyches and developmental disabilities. We need to understand that everything that we say to our children, and especially if we say it often, will eventually be reflected in their inner world and the development of their personality. We need to carefully monitor everything we say to our children, how we communicate with them, what kind of self-esteem we form and what values ​​we instill. Only healthy upbringing and true parental love can make our sons and daughters adequate people, ready for adulthood and capable of becoming part of a normal and healthy society.

More detailed information about the “monstrous” experiment is here.

7

Natural experiment conditions

Key conditions and features of experimental research include manipulation and control. Manipulation in this context means that the experimenter can control the subjects of the study and how they experience the effects. At least one variable may be manipulated. Controlled trials can only answer certain types of epidemiological questions, and they are not useful when investigating questions for which randomization is either not feasible or unethical.

As an example, suppose an investigator is interested in the health effects of poor housing. Because it is not practical or ethical to randomly assign people to variable housing conditions, the subject is difficult to study using an experimental approach. However, if there was a housing policy change, such as a lottery for subsidized mortgages, that would allow some people to move into more desirable housing while leaving other similar people in their previous substandard housing, it might be possible to use this policy change to study the impact of changing housing health conditions.

In another example, the well-known natural experiment in Helena (Montana, USA), in which smoking was banned in all public places for a six-month period. The researchers subsequently reported a 60 percent drop in heart attacks in the study area during the ban's duration.

Project "Aversia"

This terrible project was carried out from 1970 to 1989 in the South African army under the “leadership” of Colonel Aubrey Levin. This was a secret program aimed at clearing the ranks of the South African army of persons of non-traditional sexual orientation. According to official data, about 1,000 people became “participants” in the experiment, although the exact number of victims is unknown. To achieve a “good” goal, scientists used a variety of means: from drugs and electroshock therapy to chemical castration and sex change operations.

The Aversia project failed: it was impossible to change the sexual orientation of military personnel. And the “approach” itself was not based on any scientific data about homosexuality and transsexuality. Many victims of this project were never able to rehabilitate themselves. Some committed suicide.

Of course, this project concerned only people of non-traditional sexual orientation. But if we talk about those who are different from the rest in general, then we can often see that society does not want to accept people “different” from the rest. Even the slightest manifestation of individuality can cause ridicule, hostility, misunderstanding and even aggression on the part of the majority of “normal” people. Each person is an individual, a person with his own characteristics and mental properties. The inner world of every person is a whole universe. We have no right to tell people how they should live, speak, dress, etc. We should not try to change them if their “wrongness,” of course, does not harm the life and health of others. We must accept everyone as they are, regardless of their gender, religion, political or even sexuality. Everyone has the right to be themselves.

More details about the Aversia project can be found at this link.

8

Advantages and disadvantages

In psychology, a number of advantages and disadvantages of experiment are highlighted. Pros:

1. You can repeat the event under study to confirm the data or obtain new information.
2. High accuracy of the results obtained.
3. You can select any moment of the event being studied for in-depth study.
4. Ability to manipulate independent variables to obtain new information.

Minuses:

1. Deliberate influence on the psyche of the subject.
2. Possibility of obtaining an aggressive reaction to the created conditions.

Experiments are carried out after passing psychological tests, so as not to harm the subject.

Landis experiments

Landis's experiments are also called "Spontaneous Facial Expressions and Compliance." A series of these experiments was conducted by psychologist Carini Landis in Minnesota in 1924. The purpose of the experiment was to identify general patterns of work of facial muscle groups that are responsible for the expression of emotions, as well as to search for facial expressions characteristic of these emotions. The participants in the experiments were Landis' students.

To more clearly display facial expressions, special lines were drawn on the subjects’ faces. After this, they were presented with something capable of causing strong emotional experiences. For disgust, students sniffed ammonia, for arousal they watched pornographic pictures, for pleasure they listened to music, etc. But the most widespread response was caused by the last experiment, in which the subjects had to cut off the head of a rat. And at first, many participants flatly refused to do this, but in the end they did it anyway. The results of the experiment did not reflect any pattern in the expressions of people's faces, but they showed how ready people are to obey the will of authorities and are able, under this pressure, to do things that they would never do under normal conditions.

It’s the same in life: when everything is great and turns out as it should, when everything goes as usual, then we feel like confident people, have our own opinion and maintain our individuality. But as soon as someone puts pressure on us, most of us immediately stop being ourselves. Landis's experiments once again proved that a person easily “bends” under others, ceases to be independent, responsible, reasonable, etc. In fact, no authority can force us to do what we do not want. Moreover, if this entails causing harm to other living beings. If every person is aware of this, then, quite possibly, this will be able to make our world much more humane and civilized, and life in it more comfortable and better.

You can read more about Landis' experiments here.

9

Laboratory experiment

It is also called artificial, that is, the conditions for its implementation are created by experimenters in a laboratory setting, and not in a real one. The subject knows that he is the object of the experiment, but the intention and expected result usually remain secret.

Its signs:

• confined space conditions;
• results based on participants' reactions.

The advantages of this method:

it is possible to dose and control independent variables that are responsible for stimulating the object, as well as additional variables that do not have an important influence; a high degree of reliability and reliability, determined by the ability to provide the necessary parameters in the laboratory and compliance with instructions.

But artificiality is also the most significant disadvantage, because such experience is divorced from life and may not at all correspond to the real situation. What is done in the laboratory is not always capable of sprouting on real soil and remains forever only an interesting discovery, in no way applicable in practice, and therefore meaningless.

There are quite a lot of disadvantages:

• Essential conditions may not be taken into account. For example, in the laboratory they study a person's reaction time to some stimulus or sensory sensitivity, without paying attention to factors such as the significance of the signal or semantic connections, which actually play a significant role in memory. Everyone knows that it is difficult to memorize nonsense, but sonorous and touching poetry is much easier. Therefore, the results of laboratory experiments may be controversial.
• Analyticity. Individual objects and phenomena are considered separately, analysis prevails over synthesis, and interactions are not taken into account.
• Abstractness. Experience does not take into account real conditions, their specificity, or practical human activity. The patterns identified in the experiment are of a general nature; if they are transferred mechanically to life, the effect may be completely different from what was obtained in the laboratory.

Despite its shortcomings, in science this method is considered the highest form of empirical knowledge. It gives the best and most accurate results when carried out and monitored correctly.

Little Albert

An experiment called “Little Albert” or “Little Albert” was conducted in New York in 1920 by psychologist John Watson, who, by the way, is the founder of behaviorism, a special direction in psychology. The experiment was carried out in order to find out how fear is formed for objects that previously did not cause any fear.

For the experiment, they took a nine-month-old boy named Albert. For some time he was shown a white rat, a rabbit, cotton wool and other white objects. The boy played with the rat and got used to it. After this, when the boy began to play with the rat again, the doctor hit the metal with a hammer, causing very unpleasant sensations in the boy. After a certain period of time, Albert began to avoid contact with the rat, and even later at the sight of a rat, as well as cotton wool, a rabbit, etc. started crying. As a result of the experiment, it was suggested that fears are formed in a person at a very early age and then remain for the rest of his life. As for Albert, his unreasonable fear of the white rat remained with him for the rest of his life.

The results of the “Little Albert” experiment, firstly, again remind us of how important it is to pay attention to every little detail in the process of raising a child. Something that seems completely insignificant to us at first glance and is overlooked, can in some strange way be reflected in the child’s psyche and develop into some kind of phobia or fear. When raising children, parents must be extremely attentive and observe everything that surrounds them and how they react to it. Secondly, thanks to what we now know, we can identify, understand and work through some of our fears for which we cannot find the cause. It is quite possible that what we are unreasonably afraid of came to us from our own childhood. How nice can it be to get rid of some fears that tormented or simply bothered you in everyday life?!

You can learn more about the Little Albert experiment here.

10

General information

Robert Woodworth, who published his classic textbook on experimental psychology (Experimental psychology), defined an experiment as a structured study in which the researcher directly changes some factor (or factors), holds the others constant, and observes the results of systematic changes. He considered the control of the experimental factor

, or in Woodworth's terminology, the "independent variable", and tracking its effect on
the observed consequence
, or "dependent variable". The experimenter's goal is to keep all conditions constant except one—the independent variable.

In a simplified example, the independent variable can be considered as a relevant stimulus

(
St(r)
), the strength of which is varied by the experimenter, while the dependent variable is the reaction (
R
) of the subject, his psyche (
P
) to the influence of this relevant stimulus.

However, as a rule, the desired stability of all conditions, except for the independent variable, is unattainable in a psychological experiment, since almost always, in addition to these two variables, there are also additional variables, systematic irrelevant stimuli

(
St(1)
) and random stimuli (
St(2)
), leading to systematic and random errors, respectively. Thus the final schematic representation of the experimental process looks like this:

Therefore, in an experiment, three types of variables can be distinguished:

1. Independent variable
2. Dependent Variable
3. Additional variables (or external variables)

So, the experimenter is trying to establish a functional relationship between the dependent and independent variables, which is expressed in the function R

=f(
St(r)
), while trying to take into account the systematic error that arose as a result of the influence of irrelevant stimuli (examples of systematic error include the phases of the Moon, time of day, etc.). To reduce the likelihood of the impact of random errors on the result, the researcher seeks to conduct a series of experiments (an example of a random error could be, for example, fatigue or a speck of dust getting into the subject’s eye).

The main objective of the experimental study

The general goal of psychological experiments is to establish the existence of a connection R

=f(
S, P
) and, if possible, the type of function f (there are various types of relationships - cause-and-effect, functional, correlation, etc.).
In this case, R
is the subject’s reaction,
S
is the situation, and
P
is the subject’s personality, psyche, or “internal processes.” That is, roughly speaking, since mental processes cannot be “seen,” in a psychological experiment, based on the reaction of the subjects to stimulation regulated by the experimenter, some conclusion is made about the psyche, mental processes or personality of the subject.

Stages of the experiment

In each experiment, the following stages can be distinguished. The first stage is setting the problem and goal, as well as constructing an experimental plan. The experimental plan should be built taking into account accumulated knowledge and reflect the relevance of the problem.

Validity in a psychological experiment

Main article: Validity (psychology)

As in natural science experiments, so in psychological experiments, the cornerstone is the concept of validity: if the experiment is valid, scientists can have some confidence that they measured exactly what they intended to measure. Many measures are taken to ensure all types of validity are met. However, it is impossible to be absolutely sure that in any, even the most well-thought-out study, all validity criteria can be completely met. A completely flawless experiment is unattainable.

Acquired (learned) helplessness

Acquired helplessness is a mental state in which an individual does absolutely nothing to somehow improve his situation, even having such an opportunity. This condition appears mainly after several unsuccessful attempts to influence the negative influences of the environment. As a result, the person refuses any action to change or avoid the harmful environment; the feeling of freedom and faith in one’s own strength is lost; depression and apathy appear.

This phenomenon was first discovered in 1966 by two psychologists: Martin Seligman and Steve Mayer. They conducted an experiment on dogs. The dogs were divided into three groups. The dogs from the first group stayed in cages for a while and were released. Dogs in the second group were given small shocks, but were given the opportunity to turn off the electricity by pressing a lever with their paws. The third group was subjected to the same electric shocks, but without the ability to turn it off. After some time, the dogs from the third group were placed in a special enclosure, from where they could easily get out by simply jumping over the wall. In this enclosure, the dogs were also subjected to electric shocks, but they continued to remain in place. This told scientists that the dogs had developed “learned helplessness”; they began to believe that they were helpless in the face of the outside world. Afterwards, scientists concluded that the human psyche behaves in a similar way after several failures. But was it worth subjecting dogs to torture in order to find out what, in principle, we all have known for so long?

Probably, many of us can remember examples of confirmation of what scientists proved in the above-mentioned experiment. Every person in life can have a streak of failures when it seems that everything and everyone is against you. These are moments when you give up, you want to give up everything, stop wanting something better for yourself and your loved ones. Here you need to be strong, show fortitude and fortitude. It is these moments that temper us and make us stronger. Some people say that this is how life tests your strength. And if you pass this test steadfastly and with your head held high, then luck will be favorable. But even if you don’t believe in such things, just remember that it’s not always good or always bad, because... one always replaces the other. Never lower your head and do not betray your dreams - they, as they say, will not forgive you for this. In difficult moments of life, remember that there is a way out of any situation and you can always “jump over the wall of the enclosure,” and the darkest hour is before the dawn.

You can read more about what learned helplessness is and about experiments related to this concept here.

11

Experimentation as a special form of search activity

Olga Suetnikova

Experimentation as a special form of search activity

“The best discovery is that

which the child does himself!”

Ralph Emerson.

Our society needs modernly educated, moral, mobile, constructively thinking, enterprising people who can make their own decisions and choices.

Therefore, the task of modern education is not simply to transfer knowledge of knowledge, but to transform this knowledge into a tool for creative exploration of the world.

This is an independent creative search . This largely depends on the teacher who stands at the origins of the development of the child’s personality.

It is very important to create conditions for children’s experimentation , where every child can find something to do according to their strengths, interests and abilities . It is the need for new knowledge and impressions that is an indicator of the mental development of preschool children.

Knowledge taken not from books, but acquired independently, is more durable. Chinese proverb: “Tell me and I will forget, show me and I will remember, let me try and I will understand!” V. A. Sukhomlinsky - it is necessary to introduce children to the world around them, so that they discover something new in it every day.

From birth, a child is a discoverer, an explorer of the world that surrounds him. And especially a preschool child . With active participation, the child uses all his senses. Scientists have proven that the more senses are simultaneously involved in the process of cognition, the better it feels, remembers, comprehends, understands, assimilates, and consolidates the material being studied. The more actively a child touches, smells, experiments , explores, feels, observes, listens, reasons, analyzes, compares, that is, actively participates in the educational process, the faster his cognitive abilities and cognitive activity increases. Children's experimentation is a special form of search activity . Forms of experimentation (cognitive and productive)

.

The cognitive form of experimentation includes frontal activities, observations in nature, looking at albums and photographs, reading educational literature, thematic and situational conversations, targeted walks, excursions.

The productive form includes joint activities of the teacher with the child, independent activities of children , work activities , experiments, experimental , travel games, entertainment, KVN.

There must be positive motivation for activity .

Experiments happen:

individual or group,

single or cyclic (a cycle of observations of water, the growth of plants placed in different conditions, etc.)

According to the nature of mental operations, experiments can be different: ascertaining (allowing one to see one state of an object or one phenomenon,

comparative (allowing you to see the dynamics of the process)

;

generalizing (allowing one to trace the general patterns of the process previously studied at individual stages).

Experiments may vary in

They are divided into:

demonstration and frontal.

The demonstration is carried out by the teacher, and the children monitor its implementation. These experiments are carried out when the object under study exists in a single copy, when it cannot be given into the hands of children or it poses a certain danger to children (for example, when using a burning candle)

In other cases, it is better to conduct frontal
experiments , since they are more consistent with the age characteristics of children .
Children's experimentation has its own characteristics . It is free of obligations; the duration of the experience cannot be strictly regulated. It is necessary to take into account that it is difficult for preschoolers to work without speech accompaniment (since it is at older preschool age that visual-figurative thinking begins to be replaced by verbal-logical thinking and when inner speech begins to form , children go through the stage of pronouncing their actions out loud, individual differences must also be taken into account existing between children, one should not get too carried away with recording the results of experiments , it is necessary to take into account the child’s right to make mistakes and use adequate ways to involve children in work, especially those who have not yet developed skills ( conscious admission by the teacher of inaccuracies in work, etc.)

.
At any age, the role of the teacher remains leading. Without it, experiments turn into aimless manipulation of objects, without conclusions and without educational value.
The teacher must behave in such a way that the children feel as if they are working independently. When working with children, one should try not to draw a clear line between everyday life and learning, because experiments are not an end in themselves , but a way of getting to know the world in which they will live.

What should a teacher remember when organizing experimental activities for children ? ·…. Criticism is the enemy of creativity. Negative evaluation of children's ideas must be avoided. ·…. Show sincere interest in any activity of the child , be able to see the work of thoughts behind his mistakes, search for his own solution. ·….

Nurture the child's faith in his own strength. ·…

Cultivate persistence in completing a task and completing an experiment to the end . ·….

End the discussion before the children show signs of losing interest. ·…. Summarize the experiment .

The teacher can ask leading questions, but the children themselves must name the problem posed, remember all the proposed hypotheses (options, the progress of testing each, formulate the correct conclusion and evaluate their work. When the experiment is completed and conclusions are drawn, you can ask the question: “How to determine whether the conclusion is correct We have done?"

Children should be led to believe that the results
of an experiment are reliable if they do not change when the study is repeated.
Let's not forget that experience in experimental activities is acquired only gradually: ...

At the first level, the teacher himself poses the problem and outlines the main ways to solve it. Then he gives the children the opportunity to solve the problem on their own….

At the second level, the teacher only poses the problem, and the children search for a method for solving it on their own (a collective search )

. The teacher provides minimal assistance only as a last resort.

Integration of research work with other types of children's activities : observations while walking, reading, playing, allows you to create conditions for consolidating ideas about natural phenomena, the properties of materials and substances.

For example, when introducing children to such a natural phenomenon as wind, the reasons for its occurrence, its role in human life... the following methodological techniques were used: observing the movement of clouds while walking; experiment “What is the strength of the wind?”

;

Experimentation permeates all areas of children's activity : eating, playing, studying, walking, sleeping. One of the areas of children's experimental activities that we actively use is experiments. We conduct them both in direct educational activities and in free independent and joint activities . Children with great pleasure conduct experiments with objects of inanimate nature: sand, clay, snow, air, stones, water, magnets, etc.

During the walk, young researchers solve other important problems: what will happen to snow if it is placed on a radiator and whether it is possible to dry mittens on it, how to free beads from ice captivity, etc.

Usually, when asked how to see and feel air, children find it difficult to answer. To find answers to this question, we conducted a series of experiments:...

- we breathe air (we blow into a glass of water through a straw, bubbles appear)

- we have inhalation and exhalation...

- How much does air weigh?

- Is it possible to catch air?

— is the air sometimes cold?

- blow the ball into the bottle. ...

— can air be strong?

From experiments, children learn that air is everywhere, it is transparent, light, invisible. Air is needed for breathing by all living beings: plants, animals, humans. Continuing to introduce children to sand and clay and their properties.

Together with them we experiment with sand : ….

- sand cone (sand flows...

- properties of seeded sand...

- property of wet sand...

- hourglass….

- vaults and tunnels. Children discuss what kind of sand is being molded and why. Examining sand through a magnifying glass, they discover that it consists of small crystals - grains of sand, this explains the property of dry sand - flowability.

Children show cognitive interest in practical experiments, which helps to awaken children's curiosity and involve the child in the active exploration of the world around them. Every time we give children the opportunity to express their imagination and release creative energy, develop their powers of observation and the ability to draw conclusions.

The child's cognitive interest develops in the process of experimenting with liquids . Using water as an example, we introduce children to the properties of liquids.

Water is one of the main sources of life on Earth. We tell and show where water exists in nature and what properties it has. Children will learn about the importance of water, who needs it for life, where there is water in nature, how people use water, how water works for people.

And we carry out the following experiments :

“It’s drowning, it’s not drowning.”

Place objects of various weights into a bath of water. (Pushes out lighter objects)

“Submarine made from an egg.”

In a glass there is salt water, in another there is fresh water, in salt water the egg floats. (It is easier to swim in salt water because the body is supported not only by the water, but also by the salt particles dissolved in it).

“Lotus flowers.”

We make a flower out of paper, twist the petals to the center, lower them into water, the flowers bloom. (The paper gets wet, becomes heavier and the petals open)

“Wonderful matches.”

Break the matches in the middle, drop a few drops of water onto the folds of the matches, gradually the matches straighten out (wood fibers absorb moisture and cannot bend much and begin to straighten)

“Grape submarine.”

We take a glass of sparkling water and throw in a grape, it sinks to the bottom, gas bubbles settle on it and the grape floats up. (Until the water runs out, the grapes will sink and float)

“Drop ball”.

We take flour and spray from a spray bottle, we get droplet balls (the dust particles around themselves collect small drops of water, form one large drop, forming clouds).

“What does water smell like?”

Give three glasses of water with sugar, salt, clean. Add a solution of valerian to one of them. There is a smell (Water begins to smell like the substances that are put in it)

.

“Compare the viscosity of water and jam.”

(Jam is more viscous than water)

“Does water have taste?”

Give children a taste of drinking water, then salty and sweet. (Water takes on the taste of the substance that is added to it)

“Where did the ink go? Transformation.”

Ink was dropped into a glass of water, and an activated carbon tablet was placed there, and the water became lighter before our eyes. (Coal absorbs dye molecules with its surface)

“Making a cloud.”

Pour hot water into a jar, place 3 cm of ice cubes on a baking sheet and place on the jar, the air inside the jar rises up and cools. The water vapor concentrates, forming a cloud.

Children are explorers by nature.

An unquenchable thirst for new experiences, curiosity, a constant desire to experiment . To explore, to discover, to study means to take a step into the unknown. This is a huge opportunity for children to think, try, search, experiment , and most importantly, express themselves. Our task is to help children conduct this research and make it useful. ==========================

In direct educational activities, children learn to ask questions: “How to do this?”

make requests: “Let’s do this”, “Let’s see what happens if...”, compare two states of the same object and find not only the difference, but also the similarity. Children independently conceive the experiment, think through the methodology themselves and distribute responsibilities among themselves, carry it out themselves and draw the necessary conclusions themselves.

In the process of independent activity, we teach children methods of cognitive activity . How to find out? What do you need to do to make sure? What will happen if? And then, in joint activities , we consolidate the previously acquired knowledge and ideas.

I believe that in search and research activities, a preschooler gets the opportunity to directly satisfy his inherent curiosity and organize his ideas about the world.

On the topic: “Water Sorceress” we conduct experiments:

“Pour and pour out”, “Snowflake on the palm”, “Turning water into ice”, etc.

In the process of conducting experiments, we involve each child. Such experiments somehow remind the kids of magic tricks, they are unusual, and most importantly, the kids do everything themselves. Cognitive and research activities permeate all areas of children's life, including play activities . Play in exploration often develops into real creativity. And then, it doesn’t matter at all whether the child discovered something fundamentally new or did something that everyone has known for a long time.

talk endlessly about the experiments and discoveries of young students. We have been convinced in practice that experimental activity is , along with play, the leading activity of a preschool child . The main thing is that interest in research and discoveries does not fade over time. Perhaps in the near future “on the dusty paths of distant planets”

There will be traces of our guys - curious and curious.

the form of , I want to show you some types of experimentation with different materials.

The fairy tale is called “The Journey of the Duckling, or the World Beyond the Fence of the Poultry Yard”

.

“In one poultry yard, a mother duck recently hatched her ducklings. All the children were obedient, they always followed their mother duck, only one was very curious and poked his nose everywhere. One day he wanted to find out what was behind the fence of the poultry yard and he went to discover the world. Going beyond the fence, he saw a small pond, many mysterious flowers were floating in it, they were water lilies. The sun had already begun to rise and the duckling saw these beautiful flowers blooming.

Experience No. 1

Cut out flowers with long petals from colored paper. Using a pencil, curl the petals towards the center. Now lower the water lilies onto the water poured into the basin. Literally before your eyes, flower petals will begin to bloom. This happens because the paper gets wet, gradually becomes heavier and the petals open.

Then he saw that some small creatures appeared on the surface of the water and then disappeared again; they were fish that were frolicking in the sun.

Experience No. 2

Take a glass of fresh sparkling water or lemonade and drop a grape into it. It is slightly heavier than water and will sink to the bottom. But gas bubbles, like small balloons, will immediately begin to land on it. Soon there will be so many of them that the grape will float up. But on the surface the bubbles will burst and the gas will fly away. The heavy grape will sink to the bottom again. Here it will again become covered with gas bubbles and float up again. This will continue several times until the water “exhausts”

. But then the wind blew, clouds appeared in the sky and it began to rain.

Experience No. 3

Pour hot water into a liter jar. Close the jar with a lid with holes and place a few ice cubes on top. The ice will melt from the warm air, and melt water will flow into the holes, simulating raindrops.

The duckling got scared and hid under a bush. A little time passed and the rain stopped and the sun appeared again. The duckling decided to move on. Then he saw that walking on the wet sand, footprints were left behind, and then he saw other footprints, and was perplexed, who were they?

Experience No. 4

The sand in the sandbox is moistened with water so that the prints can be seen, make a print on the sand with one of the objects (footprints can be made from plasticine or wood)

.
First make a footprint of a duckling, and then a dog or bird. Wet sand cannot be poured out in a stream, but it can take any desired shape until it dries.
The duckling walked and walked and saw in front of him a huge meadow, which was strewn with colorful flowers, small bugs flew up to the flowers and buzzed loudly, they were bees.

Experience No. 5

Cover the iron flower with shiny sticky paper and glue a magnet to the bee pictures on the back side. The bees will be magnetized to the flower. The duckling really enjoyed walking and exploring this huge and interesting world around him. But he still had many questions:

1. Why do water lilies bloom?

2. Why do fish swim?

3. Why is it raining?

4. Why were there footprints in the sand?

5. Why do bees fly to flowers?

Now let's draw how our duckling walked through the park and what interesting things he saw there...

Advantages of the experimental method

The advantages of this approach in research primarily include the controllability of conditions. The researcher organizes the process in accordance with his capabilities and resources, which greatly facilitates the work. Also, the advantages of the experimental method are determined by the possibility of its repetition, which makes it possible to clarify the data without adjustments for changes in test conditions. On the contrary, flexible process correction capabilities allow you to track the dynamics of changes in certain qualities and properties of an object.

Of course, the main advantage of this technique is the accuracy of the data. This parameter will depend on how accurately the process conditions were prepared, but within the given framework and parameters you can count on a high degree of reliability. The observation method especially reveals the advantages of such tests in terms of accuracy. Against this background, the experiment is more controllable, which makes it possible to exclude third-party factors of interference in the research process.

Experimental models

Typically, perfect and random experiments are distinguished. The first includes a model of organization, which for one reason or another cannot be implemented in practice, that is, under conditions of scientific observation. This technique not only helps to complete the task set regarding the study of the object, but also helps to improve the experimental method by identifying individual errors. As for the random experiment model, it is based on the concept of a random experiment, which may correspond to a real test, but its result will be unpredictable. The random experimental method requires compliance with a wide range of requirements. For example, the prepared mathematical research model in it must adequately describe the experiment. Also, when setting up a problem, researchers precisely determine the model within which the initial mathematical data for the experiment and the results obtained will be compared.