Definition of the concept
In social, clinical and educational psychology, observation as a research method has been used since the end of the 19th century, and in the last century it began to be used in labor science. This is the most ancient method of understanding surrounding objects and phenomena. In everyday life, a person himself does not notice how he begins to observe someone or something.
Observation cannot be called a process in which the intervention of the experimenter changes the conditions of its implementation. But it will help in cases where it is necessary to obtain a holistic picture of ongoing events and reflect it in records and tables. Main features of the procedure:
- connection between observer and subject;
- partiality - emotional component;
- difficulty and sometimes impossibility of repeating.
If the observation is carried out in natural conditions, then the person will not influence it in any way. But when the subject knows that he is being examined, he changes his habits.
The first experimenters were V. Prier, V. Stern and A. Gvozdikov. They observed the development of the child in the family and recorded the information received in their diaries.
Involved, direct, provoked
In participant observation, the researcher is part of the group being studied. So to speak, trying to understand it from the inside. Despite its many merits, this observation has a significant drawback: scientists may lose objectivity by moving from the position of scientist to the role of test subject.
It is worth noting that observations can be carried out not only by people interested in the results, but also by their representatives. When a scientist observes, it is a direct study; when an intermediary, it is an indirect study. Typically, indirect observations refer to obtaining information from witnesses to an event. For example, in law enforcement agencies, the testimony of people who have become unwitting witnesses to a crime is important.
Object and surveillance equipment
The object of observation can be any object, living creature, phenomenon that can be registered . They are divided into several groups:
- verbal and non-verbal behavior;
- distance between people;
- their movement;
- physical interactions.
Verbal communication refers to all phenomena associated with speech - intensity, duration, content. Nonverbal is facial expressions, body gestures, eye expressions, and gait features. Physical influences include hugs, hits, handshakes, beatings, pushing and other touching.
During the experiment, the observer cannot recognize the properties of the psyche; he sees only those phenomena that can be recorded. The researcher only makes assumptions about the state of psychological health of the subject; he takes the data obtained during the procedure as a basis.
To study the object, special instruments are used: cameras, video cameras, voice recorders, and special observation maps. But the researcher can observe on his own, without any means.
Accepted classification
Observation is usually used when it is impermissible or simply impossible to interfere with the natural course of an event. It is divided into several types:
- external and internal;
- direct and indirect;
- direct and indirect;
- included and not included;
- field and laboratory;
- continuous and selective.
There are also different types of observation depending on the systematicity, form, objects recorded, and awareness. In the first case, there are non-systematic and systematic studies. The latter are carried out according to a specific plan, and during the experiment a person records the characteristics of the subject’s behavior and creates a classification of environmental conditions. Non-systematic ones allow you to create a general picture of a phenomenon under certain conditions. Typically such studies are field studies.
Observation is contrasted with experiments according to two criteria: spontaneity and passivity of the researcher. He cannot interfere in the course of the process, but he must write down what he sees in the protocol.
Based on the recorded objects, continuous and selective observations are divided. With the first, a person tries to note down all the features of behavior. And with the second, it records only certain acts or parameters. Depending on the forms of behavior, several studies are distinguished: conscious, unconscious external and internal, the surrounding world.
With awareness, the subject knows that he is being observed. That is, the researcher contacts him, tells him in advance about the task of the experiment and his social status. But sometimes he is given incorrect information in order to monitor his behavior in a certain situation. Although such actions lead to ethical problems and negative results.
This method is used only if it is due to observation requirements. It is necessary to conduct several studies, since the actions of the subject depend on the influence of the scientist, and if the task is incorrectly stated, the results will not meet expectations. The observation situation can be stressful for the subject, and the results will negatively affect his life.
Unconscious inner
Unconscious internal observation is different, because with it the subject does not know anything about the study. The one who conducts the assessment becomes part of the system. For example, a psychologist can infiltrate a group of representatives of a subculture to study behavior in detail. The observer is in close contact with the subjects, but they have no idea of his purpose.
This method is used to study the social characteristics of small groups. The observer must behave naturally, then his work will not influence their actions and the conclusions of the protocol. But ethical issues can become a problem: the researcher will have to deceive the group. He will also have difficulties with recordings - the results must be recorded secretly so that no one notices.
The fact that surveillance is being conducted will not affect the subject's behavior in any way. And with direct contact, the researcher will receive more information. But this can also cause some problems: sometimes psychologists adopt the value system of the group being studied, and moral conflicts arise.
External type
The definition of external unconscious observation is that the subject is unaware of the experiment. The researcher does not have contact with the group; he records information from the outside. For example, in psychiatric hospitals, the doctor monitors the patient through a special window. From the doctor's perspective, it is transparent, but the patient sees it like a mirror.
This organization of observation makes it possible not to embarrass subjects or provoke them to certain actions. Thanks to this, the researcher can collect objective information about the behavior or phenomenon. Another plus is that if at any stage the observer gets tired, he will be quietly replaced by another.
The naturalness of actions is not disrupted due to the pressure of the researcher; it becomes possible to use technical means of recording information. But due to limitations, it will be necessary to study the situation only from one side; it will not be possible to learn in more detail about the behavior of the subjects.
By observing the environment, we can learn more about the conditions that influence people's actions. Modeling certain situations will help to study all the factors influencing the subjects being studied.
Three meanings
Typically, observation is viewed from three different angles. Depending on the situation and scope of use, there are:
- Observation as a method.
- Like an activity.
- Like a technique.
Observation can be a scientific method, then it will include a system of principles of knowledge, provisions on essence and the specifics of psychological observation about the possibilities of human activity. This option is considered universal and is used to study a wide range of phenomena. The observation method is quite flexible, and if the need arises, the researcher can change the “field of coverage”, put forward and test additional hypotheses during the experiment. In addition, such activities require minimal hardware. The specificity also lies in the attitude towards the object being studied: the researcher does not interfere in his life, but at the same time maintains visual and auditory contact.
Observation as an activity is used in some practical areas. For example, an energy systems operator monitors instrument readings, a doctor examines patients, an investigator monitors a criminal, etc.
On the third hand, there is also an observation technique. It is a socially fixed subject system for collecting and processing data, which is presented in a language understandable to others and corresponds to previously identified tasks.
Code of Ethics
For the proper use and characterization of the observation method, one must follow the basic rules of psychology as established by the Code of Ethics of the American Psychological Association. The researcher must adhere to precautionary measures.
If the trial is carried out in a public place, it is not necessary to obtain the consent of the participants. And for individual research, you need to obtain the subject's permission . Psychologists must behave carefully and try not to harm others. If this cannot be avoided, it is recommended to reduce the damage.
Intrusion into the privacy of participants should also be kept to a minimum. But when observing the behavior of family members, you need to obtain their consent and explain the purpose of the task. If a person engages in self-observation, then he can study any area of his life. All data about the subjects remains confidential, psychologists have no right to disclose them. Only the results obtained can be published without indicating names, addresses and other personal information.
Observation stages:
- object selection;
- data registration;
- creating a plan;
- selection of information processing method;
- carrying out the procedure itself;
- interpretation of data.
At the first stage, the psychologist selects the object and subject, the time and place of observation. He then selects the most appropriate research method and records all the data. After planning and choosing processing methods, he proceeds directly to the observation itself. The results obtained are interpreted to produce a report.
The essence of the method
Observation in psychological science, unlike everyday observation, is based on a specific plan, a program thought out in advance, and requires recording facts, their analysis and interpretation.
Only external (speech, motor) manifestations are available for tracking. For example, it is impossible to observe:
- intelligence, but the researcher can monitor the process of solving problems;
- sociability, but you can see the fact of communication with other people.
Observed situations, phenomena, and behavior of objects are necessarily recorded in protocols and diaries. The observed characteristics are presented as descriptively as possible, without explanation. The form of the protocol reflects the subject, task, hypothesis and main criteria of the study.
The reliability of observation results increases if the researcher has the opportunity to use the method for a long time, to observe objects in different situations and roles. The reliability of the study also increases if several observers monitor the situation.
Qualitative observation is only possible if there are no role relationships between object and subject. For example, a schoolchild behaves differently in the presence of parents, teachers and friends. Therefore, the characteristics that different people give it differ.
Psychological observation does not allow the subject to intervene in the situation being studied. The observation results are necessarily supported by data from other research methods.
Advantages and disadvantages
Any type of observation method in psychology has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the ability to capture and record acts of behavior of interest and include them in the reporting protocol. The psychologist simultaneously examines the relationships of subjects with each other and with other objects and phenomena. In some cases, even their consent or preparation will not be needed.
You can record several parameters at once - movements and physical interaction, verbal and non-verbal communication . Psychologists receive information quickly, and the method itself is quite cheap. If you do not use special recording equipment, then no costs will be required.
But observation also has its downsides. There are too many distractions and factors that interfere with research. Circumstances rarely repeat themselves, so if one phenomenon is missed, it will not be possible to draw a correct generalizing conclusion. All results must be classified according to specific parameters. Different types of surveillance will require a lot of time and effort.
Psychological research methods make it possible not to assume, but to accurately find out some information from the life of subjects. With the help of observation, one can understand the essence of an individual’s behavior, his attitude towards others and himself.
Testing
Testing
A method of obtaining psychological facts using a list of standardized questions or tasks (test).
Currently, tests have been created designed to study almost any mental processes, states and personality traits. The widespread use of testing in psychology is due to the fact that with the help of tests it has become possible to compare and determine the mental development of individual functions and qualities of people relative to normal and pathological conditions. In addition, testing allows you to collect a large amount of material in a short period of time and process it quite easily.
