Personality is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, therefore modern psychology cannot yet develop an accurate and generally accepted definition of this concept. A huge variety of theories and concepts describing the nature and mechanisms of personality development have been united by researchers into basic theories of personality. In psychology, several theories of personality are actively being developed, among which five are recognized as the most significant: phenomenological, dispositional, behavioral, cognitive and psychodynamic.
Phenomenological theory of personality
In line with the phenomenological direction, the idea is emphasized that personal behavior can be characterized only in the terminology of its subjective perception and comprehension of reality. That is, this approach is based on the assertion that objectively existing reality is a reality that is consciously perceived and interpreted by a person at a certain point in time. Another equally important thesis of the phenomenological approach is the denial of fatalism, that is, the assertion that a person can build his own destiny, he has a choice in making decisions regarding his own life and the lives of others. However, a person must accept responsibility for the actions taken. The third position of the phenomenological approach is the recognition by its supporters of the positive nature of man and his desire for self-development and self-improvement.
Are you an expert in this subject area? We invite you to become the author of the Directory Working Conditions
A consistent interpretation of the phenomenological approach is presented in the works of the American psychologist C. Rogers, according to whom a person is a positive and reasonable creature who sincerely wants to live in harmony with himself and others. The driving force behind personal development, according to Rogers, is the desire for actualization, that is, the desire to preserve and develop oneself, showing the best qualities inherent in nature.
Too smart, or again at the red light
Once, one of the pillars of our department, Arkady Semenovich Nemirovsky, in the process of searching for a solution to some problem with uncertainty (a game with nature), showed that the optimal “player” who received a fine for some action (say, crossing the road at a red traffic light) should not do this action subsequently repeat.
It would seem, what could be more rational? And we decided - without really doubting the results, because among the subjects there were mainly candidates and doctors of science - to make sure that our homo sapiens
will not let you down.
Each subject was asked to press one of four buttons. After pressing the button, nature (represented by the author of these lines and Arkady Nemirovsky) reported the result - the number of units of rubles that the subject received or lost. It was announced that Nature is not malicious and does not indulge in random mechanisms. Therefore, as soon as the subject understands the algorithm, it will surely succeed
will win 10 rubles. From the conditions of the experiment, the choice of the optimal solution followed clearly: try all four actions, and then repeat the one where you are not penalized (and there was only one such thing).
Imagine the bewilderment of the researchers when not a single
of the subjects did not win 10 rubles. Somehow, no one could resist the temptation to return to an activity for which they had already been fined. For reasons of political correctness, the researchers decided that the subjects were too smart for such primitive rationality.
Meanwhile - which became known much later - the answer to the question of who should be considered more rational, adult kings of nature, their young children or other representatives of the animal kingdom, has long been of keen interest. Experiments reminiscent of Nemirovsky's game, but only with children from 4 to 15 years old, showed that the older the subjects, the worse their results. Older children, as it was written in one of the Western works, “ too smart for their own good”
. It turned out that the older the subjects, the greater their behavioral experience and the more often they get into trouble when using complex hypotheses in simple situations. Animals, once having found a safe way to a watering hole, do not leave it unless absolutely necessary. Evolution made it clear to them that they should not expect favors from nature.
Civilizations are, first of all, a search for new solutions, but such activities are difficult to recognize as rational. “Without being anywhere, the goal can be everywhere!” Nevertheless, people who “swim to swim” go against rationality over and over again. So far humanity is getting away with it.
Dispositional theory of personality
Dispositional personality theory is often characterized as a trait theory, which is associated with the main statement of this direction: a person has certain predispositions (dispositions) to specific reactions in various situations. These dispositions were called personality traits by direction theorists. In other words, a person demonstrates consistency in thoughts and actions, which is not influenced by either circumstances or the person’s previous experiences. In accordance with this, each personality is unique; its description is possible by characterizing its traits. Representatives of dispositional theory are Gordon Allport, Hans Eysenck and Raymond Cattell.
Finished works on a similar topic
Coursework Theories of personality. Theory of C. G. Jung 470 ₽ Abstract Theories of personality. Theory of C. G. Jung 230 ₽ Test Theories of Personality. Theory of C. G. Jung 200 ₽
Receive completed work or specialist advice on your educational project Find out the cost
Personality and its behavior in the organization
Organizations are made up of individuals working together. Individuals, that is, personalities, differ in their patterns of perception, learning experiences and attitudes towards the environment. Differences between people based on personality traits can be both a driver of creativity and a source of conflict and other problems in an organization. One of the tasks of a manager is to recognize the potential of individuals and use their talents to achieve the goals of the organization. Managers need to be aware of the factors that influence individual differences as well as their own assessments and attitudes.
When people describe others, it often goes like this: “She is an outgoing person” means that she is cheerful, friendly and outgoing, or “He has a shallow soul” means that he is a boring and boring person. In reality, of course, the soul can be neither small nor wide; Each person just has their own personality type.
Since personality is an important factor in determining a person's thinking, feeling and behavior, it would not be unreasonable to distinguish between personality types. Researchers have spent a lot of time and effort trying to identify these types. One of the main ways that scientists have found to study personality is to describe its traits. A trait is a specific component of personality that describes a person's particular tendencies in terms of how he thinks, feels, and behaves, such as the tendency to be shy or outgoing, untrustworthy or gullible, helpful or careless. Therefore, when we talk about a person's personality, we actually mean a set of characteristics that describe the general direction of a person's thoughts, feelings and behavior.
Scientists have identified many personality traits, and most psychologists agree that the traits that make up a person's personality can be thought of as a hierarchy. In the Big Five hierarchical model of personality, five core traits can be placed at the very top: Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience.
Each Big Five trait consists of several specific characteristics. For example, extraversion (the tendency to have a positive attitude towards life) consists of such specific traits as positive emotionality, sociability and temperament. The Big Five traits and the specific traits in the hierarchy below are universal. They can be used to describe a person's personality regardless of age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic level, or country of residence.
Each of the general and specific traits represents a continuum on which one or another aspect of personality can be located. Each aspect of a person's personality can be located at the top, bottom, middle, or any other point on this continuum. Shown is a personality diagram of a person whose Extraversion is low, Neuroticism is high, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness are medium, and Openness to Experience is relatively high. To better understand what the Big Five model means, we will describe the extremes found in each personality trait. But remember that a person's character trait can be located at any point on the continuum.
Extraversion, or positive emotionality, is a personality trait that makes a person experience positive emotions, feel good socially, and think positively about people around them. Extroverts are people who score high on the Extraversion Index and are usually outgoing, gentle, and friendly. Introverts are people who score low on extraversion, experience fewer positive emotions, and are less likely to interact with others. At work, extroverts are more likely than introverts to experience positive emotions, be satisfied with their jobs, and generally have a positive opinion of the company and its employees. Extroverts connect with colleagues faster. They do well in jobs that require frequent contact with people, such as sales or customer service.
This is a personality schema of a person who is low in extraversion, high in neuroticism, average in agreeableness and conscientiousness, and relatively high in openness to experience.
People with a negative emotional predisposition experience feelings of anxiety and generally have negative views of themselves and others. People with a high tendency toward neuroticism are more likely to experience negative emotions and experience prolonged stress for various reasons. People prone to neuroticism are more likely to experience negative emotions at work, experience stress more often, and generally have a negative attitude towards the work situation. Often the term "neurotic" is used in the media and popular publications to describe people with mental health problems. In fact, neuroticism is a character trait that is inherent to one degree or another in all normal and mentally healthy people.
People with high levels of neuroticism are often more critical of themselves and their work than those with lower levels. Thanks to this trait, they are able to perform better. Therefore, they can excel in quality control fields where critical thinking and critical judgment skills are required. People high on the Neuroticism Index can have a sobering effect on a group decision by pointing out the negative aspects of the decision being made. People low in neuroticism rarely experience negative emotions and are not as critical and pessimistic as their high neuroticism counterparts.
It is a character trait that puts a person between those who get along well with others and those who do not get along well with others. Agreeableness in general and the ability to think about others are characteristic of people with high agreeableness. People low in coexistence are uncooperative, distrustful, lack empathy, dislike being in groups, and are rude. A low level of agreeableness can be useful in jobs where people are difficult to get along with, such as a tax collector or a training company sergeant. Comfortable people are usually easy to get along with; they are “team players.” Agreeableness can be a valuable trait in areas where you need to build good relationships with people.
Honesty refers to how careful, thorough, and persistent a person is. People with high levels of conscientiousness are organized and highly disciplined. People with low conscientiousness may lack dedication and self-discipline. Honesty is important in many work situations and is considered a good predictor of high-quality performance in many work situations (14). Roger Sahlquist, entrepreneur and CEO of the successful Calgene Incorporated, is known for his meticulousness. For example, to obtain FDA approval for his genetically engineered tomatoes, Sahlquist made more than 25 trips to Washington and tirelessly provided the FDA and other agencies with all the scientific material he could get his hands on to prove the safety of his tomatoes. Sahlquist's goodwill paid off as the FDA ruled that genetically modified foods like Calgene Incorporated's New Tomatoes do not require special labeling or testing.
The last of the Big Five personality traits, Openness to Experience, measures how original and open people are to different stimuli, how broad their interests are, and how willing they are to take risks, in contrast to narrow-minded and risk-averse people. People who are open to experience can gain an advantage in areas where rapid change occurs, innovation is required, or significant risk-taking is required. To translate openness to experience into creative and innovative behavior, an organization must remove barriers to innovation. Additionally, job titles and job responsibilities should not be too narrow so that openness to experience can be used to develop new ideas. Entrepreneurs, often characterized as risk-takers, often started businesses because the large organizations they worked for placed too many restrictions on them and provided too little reward for risk-taking and innovation.
While openness to experience is certainly an advantage for entrepreneurs and in areas where innovation is needed, organizations also need people to be clear about their work and not take too many liberties. Additionally, companies are sometimes reluctant to hire people who can succeed if they take risks.
Research suggests that the Big Five personality traits are important for understanding relationships and behavior at work, and therefore for understanding organizational behavior in general. Researchers have found that people with high negative affect are more likely to experience stress at work. Research has also shown that people with positive affectivity tend to feel good about their jobs, experience job satisfaction, and are more likely to be successful in jobs that require interaction with others, such as management and sales.
I would like to add of my own accord: Of the Big Five personality traits, there is no such thing as a good or bad personality type. Each person is unique in their own way, and different people's personalities may suit different areas of work. Good leaders must understand personality traits and be able to work with different people.
Behavioral theories of personality
Sometimes this direction is called learning theory. The main thesis of behavioral theories boils down to the following: a person is the experience that she has acquired in life, what she has learned. The main source of personality development is the environment (in a broad sense), and the main elements of personality include reflexes and socialization skills. Behavioral theories of personality can be considered from the point of view of two directions. The first includes the works of famous American psychologists J. Watson and B. Skinner, who outlined one of the key ideas of classical behaviorism: human behavior is influenced by external circumstances and can be described by the formula: S → R. From the point of view of supporters of the second direction (A. Bandura and J. Rotter), the regulation of human behavior is carried out not so much by external environmental factors as by internal characteristics and ideas of the individual (goal, expectation, self-perception, etc.).
Cognitive theories of personality
This approach was actively developed in the works of the American psychologist J. Kelly, who believed that a person is like a researcher trying to understand what is happening to him, and based on this, predict what will happen in the future. That is why cognitive and intellectual processes have such a significant impact on a person’s behavior. J. Kelly argued that the world is perceived and interpreted by a person with the help of specific models, which the scientist proposed to call constructs. With this consideration, personality is a complexly organized system of the most important constructs, which reflect the feelings of the individual and its interpretation of previous experience. Therefore, relationships such as friendship and love are possible only between people who have similar constructs.
Psychodynamic theories of personality
The starting points of the psychodynamic theory of personality were presented by S. Freud within the framework of the theory of “classical psychoanalysis” he developed. From the point of view of S. Freud, the key driving factor in personality development are innate instincts, which can be grouped into two main groups: life instincts (Eros) and death instincts (Thanatos). The researcher considered sexual instincts, the energy of which he called “libido,” to be no less significant for the development of personality. Later, the term "libido" was used by Freud to describe the energy of all life instincts. S. Freud also proposed three main personality structures, including:
- Id (It) – the source of motivating energy necessary to ensure the vital activity of the individual; Initially, this energy is realized in sexual and aggressive drives, which form the fundamental part of the Id; the key principle of the functioning of the Id is the pleasure principle;
- Ego (I) – a substructure of the personality that is responsible for making decisions;
- Superego (Super-I) is a system of values and norms of behavior that are accepted in society, on the one hand, and a system of punishments for violating these rules, on the other.
In accordance with this system, the personality functions as follows: Ego, taking into account the principle of reality, tries to satisfy the needs of Id, coordinating them with the requirements of Superego. Ego, Id and Superego are in constant struggle, conflicts between them can lead to mental and somatic illnesses.
However, the psychodynamic direction is not limited only to the concept of S. Freud. An important stage in the development of personality theory was the emergence of new supporters of the psychoanalytic movement, who criticized Freud and proposed their own concepts. These researchers include A. Adler and C. G. Jung.
According to A. Adler, integrity, creativity and the self-determining essence of the individual are of particular importance, and the driving force of its development is the desire for superiority (which, for example, can be dictated by compensation for feelings of inferiority caused by childhood events). Each person has a special, unique lifestyle, based on which he strives to achieve his goals. To understand a person requires a desire to understand his lifestyle. In Adler’s concept, a person appears not only as something whole in itself, but also as part of a much larger whole: family, circle of friends, acquaintances, society, humanity, belonging to which is consistent with his social interests.
The concept of C. G. Jung played a special role in psychology.
Act rationally or simply act
Modern science trusts only numbers - without a number (preferably a rational one), harmony cannot be measured. But in order for a theory to be born, it is necessary to agree on the axioms that will become its foundation. The foundation of classical game theory is the axiom of rational behavior of all players. This means that in every game there can be a value called utility, and all participants in the game not only understand this utility in the same way, but also strive to maximize it.
Mathematicians and economists, when studying game theory and decision making, refuse to consider the assumption that people behave less than rationally. And they are easy to understand: there are arbitrarily many private ways to explain a specific reason for making a decision in a game, but only one way - the theory of rationality - has a simplicity and generality that is inaccessible to private models. Life is, of course, a set of special cases, but theory must
study the case as general as possible. (Even if in each particular case the theory will not be absolutely correct.)
The main task of the institute, where the author worked before the well-known “geopolitical catastrophe,” was to protect the airspace of his then homeland. But the theoretical department in it was a kind of Athens Academy, whose employees were engaged in a lot of interesting things - from bionics to economics. Once the department was entrusted with helping fraternal Georgia in solving the problem of efficient transportation of railway cargo across its territory - the chairman of the Committee for Supply and Sales of the Georgian SSR, Mikhail Galaktionovich K., was close friends with the leadership of the institute. When the months-long work on the project was completed and the creators of the optimal solution presented a plan that would minimize the total costs of transportation, there was a complete breakdown. “What kind of optimality is this, dear,” Mikhail Galaktionovich was indignant. “Your part of the cargo bypasses Tbilisi!” What kind of boss am I, you know, if I can’t control everything myself?”
Oh, how right he was! Fifty years before this incident, one of the most famous economists, John Maynard Keynes, coined the term animal spirit to explain the nature and behavior of people:
people are driven not by the desire to maximize abstract “utility”, but by a spontaneous urge to act rather than inaction. If the developers had guessed to ask the customer what exactly he considers “useful”, the task could have turned out to be much simpler and would have resulted in a banquet at Aragvi.
