PERSONALITY, one of the centers. concepts of philosophy and psychology, a person considered primarily. as an autonomous bearer and subject of culture, historically established forms of world relations, which he implements in his activities. Along with this, in psychology there is also a widespread understanding of personality as an individuality, a stable specific structure that develops during life. psychological characteristics of the individual that underlie his characteristic forms of behavior.
Historical development of the concept of personality
In classic Latin word "L." (persona) meant primarily a “mask” (cf. Russian “mask”) - a cast from the face of an ancestor, a ritual mask and a theatrical one, playing the role of a resonator, serving to amplify the sound of the voice; the associated tradition of elevating this word to the verb personare - “to sound loudly” is linguistically untenable. point of view, because the vowel “o” in these words has a different meaning. longitude In the Middle Ages, this word was interpreted as “to sound through oneself” (per se sonare) - a person, that is, is the one who has his own. voice (Bonaventura, 2 Sent. 3, p. 1, a. 2, q. 2). Dr. popular middle-century The etymology falsely attributed to Isidore of Seville is per se una (one in itself). Modern researchers trace this word to the Etruscan fersu (mask), apparently dating back to the Greek. πρόσωπον (face, front, mask).
Persona is a fundam. concept of Rome. jurisprudence (along with “thing” and “action”), designating a person as an individual occupying a specific position in society, while homo (man) designates him as an instance of a species, a caput (head) as a unit subject to taxes or carrying military duty. In this sense, the word persona is used by Cicero, who distinguishes four “personas” assigned by nature to a person: he has “mind and consciousness,” i.e., signs of the human race, belongs to a certain type of character, lives in a specific environment in certain circumstances and chooses a certain profession or way of life; Moreover, everyone “must be true to his nature” (treatise “On Duties”, book I, 109–120). Marcus Aurelius encouraged everyone to create their own. person
In the context of trinitarian debates in Christian theology, the word persona was first used by Tertullian (Adv. Praxean), in his formula of the trinity tres personae – una substantia (“three persons – one substance”). In intense theological discussions, the important milestones of which were the Councils of Nicaea (325) and Chalcedon (451), a final concept was developed. formula: “unity (of God) in three persons and one person (Christ) in two natures (human and divine)” (in the Greek tradition, the word hypostasis was used in this context, much less often - πρόσωπον). Boethius in Christology in the treatise “Against Eutyches and Nestorius” he gave a definition of L., which for a long time became classic: “individual substance of a rational nature” (naturae rationalis individua substantia). Richard of Saint-Victor, considering Boethius’s definition not entirely adequate, since substance answers the question “what?”, and personality answers the question “who?”, gave the following definition: “the incommunicable existence of rational nature” (intellectualis naturae incommunicabilis existentia). Alexander Gaelsky, based on the division of existence into the physical, rational and moral, made a distinction, respectively, between the subject, the individual and the personality: each L. is an individual and a subject, but only the possession of a special dignity makes the subject a person. Thomas Aquinas, who proclaimed L. “that which is most perfect in all nature,” considered it essential for L. to be the master of his actions, “to act, and not to be put into action” (S. Th. I, 29, 3 and 1) .
In the philosophy and culture of the Renaissance, L. began to be identified primarily with a bright, multifaceted individuality, capable of achieving anything he wanted.
At the center of J. Locke's concept of life is the phenomenon of self-consciousness, which accompanies every act of thinking and ensures the identity of the Self thanks to the ability of L. to remember his previous states. For I. Kant, who gave a justification for the concept of philosophy in the field of practical philosophy, philosophy is based on a person’s ability to act in accordance with the universal moral law, which gives her freedom in relation to the mechanism of nature; it is not a means, but “an end in itself,” and the requirement to treat a person in accordance with this is the highest ethical. Kant's principle. I. G. Fichte singled out the relationship with the Other as constitutive for L.: “consciousness of the Self” and “being a person” can arise only if the Self is demanded to act by the Other, opposing the Self by the right of their freedom. G. W. F. Hegel developed this idea from Fichte in his analysis of the relationship between “master” and “slave” in the Phenomenology of Spirit, according to which being a person presupposes recognition coming from the Other. The understanding of personality as a unique individuality (see Individual), going back to the teachings of G. W. Leibniz on monads, became one of the fundamental ideas of the German language. romanticism (F. Schlegel, F. Schleiermacher, etc.).
In phenomenology beginning. 20th century L. is considered as a unity directly. experiences and, accordingly, as the starting point of intentional acts (E. Husserl), as the center of the diverse acts it carries out - not only cognitive, but above all volitional and emotional, in the concrete coupling of which the existence of the individual is realized (M. Scheler).
In connection with the understanding of the processes of depersonalization in mass society of the 20th century. traditional L.'s concept was questioned (the unconscious as the source of human actions, “escape from freedom” and social responsibility - in various versions of psychoanalysis, “death of the subject” in postmodernism, etc.). In the philosophy of existentialism, manifestations of life are associated with “borderline” (K. Jaspers), or extreme, situations - awareness of the finitude of existence, struggle and suffering, the proximity of death, the need to make vital decisions when a person gains the ability to take responsibility. Representatives of personalism (E. Mounier, N. A. Berdyaev, J. Maritain, P. Ricoeur, and others) considered love in its active expression in work, creativity, communication, and love. R. Descartes’ thesis “I think, therefore I exist” was reformulated by Mounier as “I love, therefore I exist.” According to Maritain, a person in his everyday existence, in a situation of falling away from God, can be considered only as an object; only turning to God allows one to accommodate all the diversity of human life. In the so-called. dialogical philosophy (M. Buber, F. Rosenzweig, O. Rosenstock-Hüssy, G. Marcel, E. Levinas, M. M. Bakhtin) L. arises in the process of interpersonal dialogue conducted between I and You, as opposed to the subject-object in the relation I - It, while both another person and God (“eternal You”) act as You. Relationship diff. L. generates a special interpersonal unity - We. A person connected only with the world of things and ideologies - the world of It - loses his personal existence. Fundamental responsibility for the Other, without relying on reciprocity, is what makes a person a L and a moral being (Levinas).
The problem of L. occupies an important place in modern history. political and social theory. Thus, J. Rawls saw the basis of a just society in the recognition of the autonomy of the individual, who has the freedom and right to realize his own. ideas about the good. J. Habermas is developing a theory of a universal communicative community, built on respectful and tolerant interaction of individuals and excluding their manipulation.
Russian philosophy of personalism
Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev characterizes man from the point of view of eschatology. The thinker compares the concepts of individual and personality. The individual is a citizen of nature with its inherent materiality and gross physicality. Personality is a concept that reflects the Christian idea of man as the likeness of God. Therefore, personality cannot be derived from the natural principle and the path of its existence is colored by tragedy. The chosen individuals retain their existence after the Judgment, the concept of which is defended by Christianity.
Russian existential philosopher L. Shestov, discussing the nature of human personality, characterizes it through the concepts of tragedy and loneliness. The individual finds himself alone within the framework of the surrounding world and society, which oppress him and try to limit him to certain social boundaries. A person can realize himself as an individual only in solitude. Truly creative individuals are doomed to a constant awareness of approaching death.
Study of personality in psychology
In psychology theories of L. con. 19 – beginning 20th centuries was reflected as a medical and biological science originating from Hippocrates. the tradition of highlighting observable individual differences, their measurement, classification and construction of typologies (E. Kretschmer, V. Stern, A.F. Lazursky), and the humanitarian tradition of considering personality in the context of values, self-attitudes and internal relationships, coming from ethics and philosophy of law. the human world (W. James, E. Spranger, K. G. Jung, etc.). In the beginning. 20th century the first actually psychological were developed. experimental methods, clinical. and diagnostic studying L. Theories of L., created on their basis (K. Levin, G. Allport, G. Murray, etc.), to the end. 1930s laid the foundation for psychology of psychology as a special branch of science. At the same time, the question of personology was raised - an interdisciplinary science about L. (Stern, Murray).
The problem of the apparent incompatibility of the study of L. as a unique individuality and the identification of general patterns was resolved by G. Allport, who proposed to identify the laws of the formation of uniqueness and formulated one of such laws - the principle of functional autonomy, according to which, from a limited number of basic motives common to all people in the course of individual development, new, original motives are formed (see Motivations).
Four main ones can be distinguished. orientation in psychology personality research.
Psychodynamic orientation, in the center of which is the problem of unconscious motivating forces and causes of behavior, their formation in individual history, influence on the psyche and behavior, their awareness and control, the emergence of psychopathology. symptoms based on repressed (blocked) impulses (psychoanalysis and other areas of depth psychology).
Experimental-psychological orientation, in the center of which is the problem of quantitative measurement of individual personal variables, identifying their relationships and general structure, their stability and variability, influence on behavior in relation to external situational factors, development in ontogenesis, the degree of biological. and social conditioning (differential psychology of V. Stern, dynamic theory of K. Lewin, factor theory of R. Cattell, social-cognitive theory of A. Bandura, theory of integral individuality of V. S. Merlin, theory of attitude of D. N. Uznadze, etc. ).
Humanistic orientation, in the center of which are problems of personal growth, self-actualization, orientation to higher values, search for the meaning of life, authenticity, freedom, responsibility, creativity, interpersonal dialogue, transcendence, psychological health, as well as deviations from healthy full development and its restoration by means of psychotherapy (A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V. Frankl and other representatives of humanistic psychology, existential psychology and transpersonal psychology).
Sociocultural orientation, in the center of which are the problems of the social conditioning of life and its manifestations, the internalization of culturally fixed values, norms, standards of behavior, means of activity, meanings, etc., the development of life in ontogenesis through interaction with social groups and communities, evolution of personality in human history (cultural-historical psychology, psychological anthropology, etc.).
The appearance of a subject is accompanied, accordingly, by the emergence of a scientific theory.
The first theory of personality I would include the work of such an author as William James , a very important American philosopher and psychologist.
He was also the first to put forward such a concept as the human self , and psychoanalysis . He identified three types of human self - physical, social and spiritual. Since the Self is what a person identifies himself with, accordingly, three worlds arise here - the physical world, the social world and the world of spiritual values, as three components of the human Self.
The second name that I would note is a psychologist who, unfortunately, is not often mentioned undeservedly and this was the German psychologist William Stern. William Stern made a very great contribution to various areas of psychology, including practical psychology. He created one of the world's first institutes of practical psychology, Stern finally formulated the concept of IQ “intelligence quotient,” and he also introduced the concept of differential psychology. He made a huge contribution to the development of child psychology. That is, his contribution is multifaceted. But in this case I am interested in a slightly different context. Stern called for the creation of such a broad movement as personalism . It is known that in Latin persona is a person . Accordingly, in the same form the word entered other European languages. He came up with the idea of creating such a personalism movement. What does this movement mean? Stern realizing that by the beginning of the 20th century psychology had become fragmented. I tried to draw the attention of psychologists to the following phenomenon, so that every psychologist does not study someone studying perception, someone studying memory, someone thinking, someone other mental processes. Whatever every psychologist studies, one must understand that the mental phenomenon being studied turns out to be one of the diverse creations of a single, integral personality.
Whatever phenomenon we study in our laboratory, it is important to understand that it does not exist on its own, it is one of the creations of the entire psyche.
The category of personality was placed at the forefront, and all other psychological concepts were derived from it. In this case, the fragmentation of psychology, he believed, could possibly be overcome. Stern's personalism never became a theory of personality, despite all his efforts and merits.
The first specific psychological theory of personality was psychoanalysis.
But personality is not the exclusive property of psychology, no matter how zealously psychologists wanted to privatize it and make it exclusively their property. Nevertheless, personality is a common object for different sciences, and each of these sciences highlights its own subject in personality. How does each science single out its subject in this large object called personality? Very simple. Isolating an object from an object, cutting out such a narrow object into a large object is always determined by the goal, that is, by what I want to reveal, by what I want to receive. It is clear that each science has its own goals and, in accordance with them, each science in this general object carves out its own narrow sector, its own subject.
Let me give you an example: are historical sciences interested in personality? Yes, of course, but they are not interested in everything. Since the historian not only describes the facts of the past, but like any science, history tries to explain the process of historical development and identify its patterns. In the process of identifying the driving forces of historical development, historians turn to specific individuals.
On the one hand, we understand that there are probably objective laws of social development. These laws, for example, lead to a change in socio-economic formations to revolutions or evolutionary development.
These are objective laws of the development of society, but very specific historical events are created by the hands of living, specific people, and we can always name their names. Lenin and the Bolsheviks staged the October Revolution, seized power first in Petrograd, and then began to seize it in the rest of the cities of Russia. It was Lenin who arranged everything. Then a question arises for the historian, but it is interesting to know to what extent different historical events are caused by the action of general objective laws of history? Are these objective laws of history operating through the hands of specific people? Nothing depends on a specific person; there are objective laws of history and specific people are simply their executors. Or are these historical events to some extent determined by the actions of a particular person? Because it was Lenin, it was he who chose such a good moment, because he had certain personality traits? This problem is what historians call the role of personality in history.
Essentially the historian is trying to answer the question. To what extent are historical events determined by the actions of a particular person? To what extent is a person not free to influence the objective course of history? Sociologists are also interested in personality in their own way, and even in sociology itself there is such a branch or section - this is the sociology of personality. And sociologists are interested in personality exclusively as an element in various social processes, that is, in various forms of unification of people. From this point of view, the personality is interesting to them; everything else does not affect the interests of the sociologist.
Personality structure and its development
The concepts of the structure of L. are very diverse, which is associated with various. approaches to life and methods of studying it. L. is not reducible to its structure - along with stability, it contains tendencies towards variability, towards overcoming any fixed reaction tendencies. Any elements and units of analysis of L. are hypothetical. constructs created by researchers to explain the relationship between directly observable personality manifestations.
In the study of the structure of love, five research strategies can be identified: 1) the identification of integral stable types of love or its substructures, which goes back to the “Characters” of Theophrastus and the temperaments of Hippocrates. In the 20th century L.'s theories have become widespread, based on identifying body types (E. Kretschmer), L.'s orientation (E. Spranger), leading mental. processes (K. G. Jung), higher nervous activity (I. P. Pavlov), etc.; 2) search for stable measurable (primarily through personality questionnaires) characteristics that determine the relative. constancy of behavior over time and in different situations - personality traits, or dispositions. The resulting methodological The problems are related to the fact that the selection of traits is determined not so much by psychological factors. the structure of L., as well as the structure of the language of its description. All R. 20th century the development of this research strategy was associated with the use of factor analysis (R. Cattell), which made it possible to integrate the measurement data of the department. features into a single structure; 3) proposed in the beginning. 20th century Z. Freud psychodynamic. strategy: identifying the “deep” elements of life that determine the individual orientation of behavior and the subjective nature of the attitude towards the world. Projective methods for studying literature have been developed, based on the analysis of the subject’s unique perception of ambiguous objects and situations. Subsequently, attempts were made to describe the structure of life in terms of such elements as motives, complexes, personal defense mechanisms, meanings, personal constructs (J. Kelly), relationships; 4) introspective strategy based on phenomenological. description of the Self, which is revealed through self-analysis - introspection (works of W. James, numerous studies of the Self-concept, self-image, self-esteem and other aspects of identity); 5) a strategy for studying the mechanisms of subjectivity, self-regulation and self-determination, which took shape only in the end. 20th century Its subject is the strategies chosen by the subject to explain events and regulate their own. actions, in particular locus of control, attribution of successes and failures, coping strategies and other attitudes that underlie such manifestations of love as optimism, responsibility, autonomy, resistance to adverse influences, etc.
Historically, the emergence of personality in human society as a subject of social activity is preceded by a stage of development in which the life activity of individuals is entirely determined by a system of social regulators external to them—values, norms, prohibitions, etc., developed by clan, family, and community. The formation of personality is associated with the isolation of individuals in their activities from the social whole. In this process, there is an internalization and individual refraction of social regulators, their transformation into intrapersonal regulators, the formation of an individually selective attitude to reality, which is expressed in the formation of a holistic semantic perspective of the life world, which becomes the basis of the individual’s activity.
L.'s development in ontogenesis is intertwined, but does not coincide with biology. maturation and with the formation of a person’s position in the system of social relations (social maturation). Its beginning is associated with the separation of the child from the symbiotic. child-parent dyads. Subsequently, the process of becoming an autonomous child has two turning points: in early preschool age, when the child becomes aware of his own self and his ability to withstand external pressure, feeling himself a subject of his actions (“the first birth of personality”), and in adolescence, when self-awareness and a philosophy of life are formed, the ability to build one’s own life and one’s character is formed in accordance with an individual’s idea of oneself and one’s own. system of values (“the rebirth of personality”). The formation of the ability for self-regulation and self-determination determines the overall development of the individual.
Basic principles of personalism
- Personalism in its classical form is a continuation of the anthropological and personalistic ideas of Christian philosophy. Personalism is a theistic system
- Man is an active cognitive being.
- Personality is the highest value and the primary type of reality.
- Personality is an ontological category and is characterized from three sides: on the one hand, it has an exterior orientation outward, towards the surrounding world, on the other hand, it is interior, has a tendency to introspection. The third side of the personality is its striving for the knowledge of transcendental existence. The personality correlates itself with the existence of God and with the system of moral imperatives (good, meaning of life, truth, etc.).
Finished works on a similar topic
Course work Personality in philosophy 480 ₽ Abstract Personality in philosophy 220 ₽ Test paper Personality in philosophy 190 ₽
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Personal qualities
In psychology and sociology, a person is usually characterized by his individual characteristics. They identify qualities associated with a certain way of perceiving or judging, as well as with the way a person influences the environment. Attention is focused on originality, on the characteristics that distinguish an individual in society, on the functions he performs, on the degree of influence he exerts, or on the impression he makes on other people: “aggressive”, “submissive”, “heavy” and so on. Independence, willpower, determination, intelligence and wisdom are considered very important.
Different points of view
Based on these definitions, we can say that, in addition to the philosophical, there are two more main approaches to the study of personality:
- psychological;
- sociological.
The psychological approach considers personality as a certain style characteristic of it. This style is determined by the characteristic organization of mental tendencies, complexes, emotions and moods. The psychological approach allows us to understand the phenomena of personality disorganization and the role of desires, mental conflict, repression and sublimation in its growth. The sociological approach considers personality from the point of view of the status of the individual, her understanding of her role in the group of which she is a member. What others think of us plays a big role in shaping our personality.
