The meaning of the word “psychology” in 8 dictionaries

Despite the fact that man is in constant development, and the world around him is changing all the time, the very nature of man and his behavior remain unchanged - they obey the same laws as many centuries ago. That is why general human psychology is still the object of interest of a huge number of scientists and specialists today. General psychology as a science remains important and relevant. Numerous seminars, theoretical and practical courses, workshops and various types of training are devoted to teaching the basics of general psychology. In this lesson you will get acquainted with the subject and method of general psychology, find out what problems, tasks, laws and features of this scientific discipline exist.

Introduction to General Psychology

General psychology is a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and are formed, and also generalizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.

The most complete description of these components is given in the sections of general psychology. But, at the same time, individual manifestations of the psyche are not studied by general psychology, as, for example, in sections of special psychology (pedagogical, developmental, etc.).

The main subject of study of general psychology is such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will touch on in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with human life and activity, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.

A theoretical course in general psychology usually includes the study of any specific thematic sections, areas, research, history and problems of this science. A practical course is, as a rule, mastering the methods of research, pedagogical and practical psychological work.

Who is a psychologist today?

Today, a psychologist, unlike a philosopher, must obtain at least a bachelor's degree from a university in order to practice and research. He is a representative of his science and is called upon not only to provide psychological assistance, but also to contribute to the development of his activities. What does a professional psychologist do:

Reveals archetypes and establishes the character and temperament of the individual.
Analyzes the behavior of his patient, identifies the root cause and eradicates it if necessary. This allows you to change your lifestyle, get rid of negative thoughts and help you find motivation and purpose.
Helps to get out of a depressed state, get rid of apathy, discover the meaning of life and start looking for it.
Struggling with psychological trauma that occurred either in childhood or throughout life.
Analyzes the patient's behavior in society and also finds the root cause. As a rule, in many cases, the family situation, relationships with peers, relatives and just strangers play an important role.

A psychologist should not be confused with a psychiatrist. The second is a scientist who has received a medical degree and has the right to engage in diagnosis and treatment. It identifies, analyzes and examines mental disorders from the most minor and subtle to the most aggressive. The psychiatrist's task is to determine whether a person is sick or not. If a deviation is detected, the doctor develops a unique technique that can help the patient, relieve his symptoms or completely cure him. Despite widespread controversy, it has been concluded that a psychiatrist is not a medical specialist, although he works directly with patients and various medications.

Psychology is relevant and important in the life of each of us. This science is a vivid example of human evolution, when, asking ourselves countless questions, we developed and each time stepped to a new stage. She studies the type of people, the phenomena when in different situations they unite in groups, disperse and lead a lonely lifestyle, show aggression, or, conversely, experience emotional overexcitation and happiness. Motivation, goals, depression and apathy, values and experiences - this is only a small part that is studied by such a unique science as psychology.

An exercise in understanding other people

And before we move on to studying human psychology, we suggest you do a peer-test task to assess your ability to understand what is happening in the souls of other people. It consists of three steps:

Read the description of the situation and write down what emotions you experienced while reading it.
Read the responses of other users and try to understand why they experience these particular emotions.
After that, you need to evaluate how well you understood the other person and how close your answer is to theirs.

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How to learn this?

Naturally, knowledge about psychology is not present in us from birth, but is formed throughout life. Some people, of course, have a predisposition to psychology. Such people often become psychologists, intuitively understand people, and look at life a little differently. Others have to specifically study psychological knowledge and put more effort and patience into mastering it. But, in any case, you can learn anything. And master the skill of applying psychological knowledge – even more so. Moreover, you can do this yourself.

There are two aspects to learning this skill - theoretical and practical.

The theoretical aspect of psychology is the knowledge that is taught in educational institutions and is also given in the presented course;
The practical aspect of psychology is the application of new knowledge in life, i.e. transition from theory to practice.

But it often happens that a theory remains a theory, because people simply do not know what to do with the information that they now possess. Any lessons, courses, trainings, lectures, seminars, etc. should be aimed at the practical application of knowledge in real life.

Taking this feature into account, the course, the introduction to which you are now reading, was compiled. The purpose of this course is not only to give you a good theoretical basis of psychological knowledge, but also to teach you how to use this knowledge. All course lessons have a two-way focus - theory and practice. The theoretical part contains the most important knowledge on the topic of human psychology and represents its quintessence. The practical part, in turn, consists of recommendations, advice, psychological methods and techniques designed for you to use them.

This course “Human Psychology” is:

Systematized and understandable material for anyone, presented in a simple, interesting and accessible form.
A collection of useful tips and tricks that are easy to put into practice from the very first day.
The opportunity to see yourself and your life, as well as other people from a new, previously unknown side.
The opportunity to increase the level of your intelligence, education and erudition by several levels, which undoubtedly plays a significant role in the life of a modern person.
The opportunity to find the main motivating force that will encourage you to go forward and achieve success.
An opportunity to grow as a person and improve the level and quality of your life.
The opportunity to learn how to establish contact with any people (from your own children and parents to bosses and hooligans on the street).
A way to achieve harmony and happiness.

Want to test your knowledge?

If you want to test your theoretical knowledge on the topic of the course and understand how suitable it is for you, you can take our test. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question.

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Methods of general psychology

Like any other science, general psychology uses a system of various methods. The basic methods for obtaining various facts in psychology are considered to be observation, conversation and experiments. Each of these methods can be modified to improve results.

Observation

Observation is the most ancient way of knowledge. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term (can take place even over several years), selective, continuous and special (participant observation, during which the observer is immersed in the group he himself is studying).

The standard observation procedure consists of several stages:

Setting goals and objectives;
Definition of the situation, subject and object;
Determining the methods that will have the least impact on the object under study and ensure that the necessary data is obtained;
Determining how data is maintained;
Processing of received data.

External observation (by an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. There is also self-observation. It can be either immediate - in the current moment, or delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Observation is an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

Conversation

Conversation as a psychological method involves direct/indirect, oral/written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life (from the person himself or from people who know him), interviews (a person answers pre-prepared questions), questionnaires and different types of questionnaires (written answers to questions).

A personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined works best. At the same time, it is important to think through the conversation beforehand, draw up a plan and identify problems that should be identified. During the conversation, questions from the person being examined are also expected. A two-way conversation produces the best results and provides more information than just answering questions.

But the main method of research is experiment.

Experiment

An experiment is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of activity of the subject in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.

There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are guided by instructions. A person knows about the experiment, although he may not know its true meaning. Some experiments are carried out repeatedly and on a whole group of people - this makes it possible to establish important patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

Another method is tests. These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. The tests are short-term tasks that are similar for everyone, the results of which determine whether the test subjects have certain mental qualities and the level of their development. Various tests are created in order to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.

Since the genetic principle plays a special role in the methods of psychological research, the genetic method is also distinguished. Its essence is the study of mental development in order to reveal general psychological patterns. This method is based on observations and experiments and builds on their results.

In the process of using various methods, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the problem being studied. Therefore, along with the main methods of psychological research, a number of special auxiliary and intermediate techniques are often used.

Psychology methods are discussed in more detail in the next lesson.

Should you consult a psychologist if you have problems?

Of course it's worth it. What is more important here is the ability to contact a specialist in case of problems. You can contact a psychologist if you have problems of varying importance. Consultation is necessary for mental illnesses (for example, depression, bipolar mental disorder), as well as serious and profound injuries.

For example, victims of domestic violence need specialist advice. Since it is impossible to work through this moment on your own. For many factors. For example, due to the presence of Stockholm syndrome, when the victim idealizes the rapist and begins to justify him. Therefore, a professional view and approach from the outside is needed.

Subject and object of general psychology

Any science is characterized, among other things, by the presence of its own subject and object of study. Moreover, the subject and object of science are different things. An object is only an aspect of the subject of science that is studied by the subject, i.e. researcher. Awareness of this fact is very important for understanding the specifics of general psychology, as a multifaceted and diverse science. Considering this fact, we can say the following.

The object of general psychology is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction of living beings with the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world on the basis of available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, serves as a mediator between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person’s ideas about the external and internal, bodily and mental.

The subject of general psychology is the laws of the psyche, as a form of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The subject is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.

Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to identify many objects for research within it, there are currently general theories of psychology in psychological science that are oriented towards different scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechniques to influence consciousness and control it. But no matter how complex the ways in which psychological thought advances, constantly transforming the object of its research and thereby plunging deeper into the subject, no matter what changes and additions it is subject to and no matter what terms it is designated, it is still possible to identify the main blocks of terms, which characterize the object of psychology. These include:

mental processes - psychology studies mental phenomena in the process of formation and development, the product of which are results formed into images, thoughts, emotions, etc.;
mental states – activity, depression, vigor, etc.;
mental properties of a person - determination, hard work, temperament, character;
mental new formations are the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person acquires throughout his life.

Naturally, all mental phenomena cannot exist in isolation, but are closely related to each other and influence each other. But we can consider each of them separately.

Famous psychologists and their theories

Today, science is actively developing. Therefore, there are many theories now. Let's look at the most popular of them.

Psychologist	The essence of the theory
Sigmund Freud	Developed a theory of the conscious and unconscious. In his opinion, behind every mental pathology there is an interconnection of conscious and unconscious elements of the human psyche.
Abraham Maslow	Developed the famous theory of human needs
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky	He developed theories of the influence of the team on a person’s personality, the processes of socialization and social development, features of the psychological development of the individual
Jean Piaget	Created a theory of cognitive development of personality. Now his works form the basis of many methods of cognitive psychology
Eric Ericson	Developed a clear and relevant theory of the stages of psychosocial personality development

Table of theories of famous psychologists and philosophers

Feel

Sensations are mental processes that are mental reflections of individual states and properties of the external world, arising from direct influence on the senses, a person’s subjective perception of external and internal stimuli with the participation of the nervous system. In psychology, sensations are usually understood as the process of reflecting various properties of objects in the surrounding world.

Sensations have the following properties:

Modality is a qualitative indicator of sensations (for vision - color, saturation, for hearing - volume, timbre, etc.);
Intensity is a quantitative indicator of sensations;
Duration is a temporary indicator of sensations;
Localization is a spatial indicator.

There are several classifications of sensations. The first of them belongs to Aristotle. They identified five basic senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste and smell. But in the 19th century, due to the increase in the types of sensations, the need for a more serious classification arose. Today there are the following classifications:

Wundt's classification - depending on the mechanical, chemical and physical properties of stimuli;
Sherrington classification - based on the location of receptors: exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive sensations;
Head's classification - based on origin: protopathic and epicritic sensitivity.

Read more about sensations in the article “Sensation and Perception.”

Deviation from accepted standards

Not all areas of modern psychology are considered recognized or fully studied. Many still do not want to be recognized as scientists, or remain an unexplored area for those who want to unravel the mystery of telepathy and clairvoyance.

Parapsychology - what kind of science is it and what tasks does it set for itself? Not universally recognized science deals with the study of paranormal phenomena, phenomena, and unexplained facts. Types of forms of paranormal sensitivity are expressed in the form of telepathy (mental communication between people), clairvoyance (receiving data through inexplicable flows of information from the outside through the senses), precognition (a type of clairvoyance based on predicting the future). They also study dowsing (search using a curved metal wire), psychokinesis (influencing surrounding objects with the help of thoughts), paramedicine (the study of inexplicable methods of treatment).

Does all of the above areas of parapsychology have something in common? What could it be? That they are mysterious, mysterious and too far from generally accepted reality.

In Europe, back in 1882, the organization “Society for the Study of Psychical Phenomena” was created in London, and by the 30s of the 20th century there were more than 240 laboratories in 30 countries. The debunking of parapsychologists' hypotheses further instilled confidence in followers who were looking for evidence of their theories.

Over time, thanks to the contributions of engineers and physicists, it was established that the human brain is associated with scientific physical processes, and accordingly, some of the phenomena studied began to be determined by traditional research methods. Inexplicability and incorrectness in terms of methodology cause distrust from the outside, but parapsychological phenomena exist and require a scientific psychological and physical explanation, which is what parapsychologists do in scientific institutions.

Perception

Perception is a cognitive process that forms the subject’s picture of the world. A mental operation that reflects an object or phenomenon that affects the receptors of the sense organs. Perception is a complex function that determines the reception and transformation of information and forms a subjective image of an object for the subject. Through attention, a whole object is discovered, its special features and content are highlighted, and a sensory image is formed, i.e. comprehension occurs.

Perception is divided into four levels:

Detection (perceptual action) – image formation;
Discrimination (perceptual action) is the perception of the image itself;
Identification (recognition action) - identification of an object with existing images;
Identification (identification action) – categorization of an object.

Perception also has its own properties: structure, objectivity, apperception, selectivity, constancy, meaningfulness. More information about perception can be found in the articles “Sensation and Perception” and “Mental Processes: Types and Brief Description.”

Attention

Attention is the selective perception of a particular object. It is expressed in how a person relates to an object. Attention can often be backed by such psychological characteristics of the individual as need, interest, focus, attitudes and others. Attention also determines how a person navigates the world around him and how this world is reflected in his psyche. The object of attention is always in the center of consciousness, and the rest is perceived more weakly. But the focus of attention tends to change.

The objects of attention are, as a rule, what has the greatest significance for a person at the moment. Maintaining attention for a long time on an object is called concentration.

Attention functions:

Detection
Selective attention
Divided attention

Attention can be voluntary and involuntary. It differs in form into:

External – aimed at the outside world;
Internal – aimed at the inner world of a person;
Motor

Properties of attention: direction, distribution, volume, intensity, concentration, switchability, stability.

All of them are closely related to human activities. And depending on its purpose, they can become more or less intense.

Read more about attention in our lesson “Attention and Memory” from the course on memory development.

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Representation

In the process of representation, mental reconstruction of images of phenomena or objects that do not currently affect the senses occurs. There are two meanings of this concept. The first denotes the image of a phenomenon or object that was previously perceived, but is not perceived now. The second describes the reproduction of images itself. As mental phenomena, ideas can be somewhat similar to perception, hallucinations and pseudohallucinations, or different from them.

Views are classified in several ways:

According to leading analyzers: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and temperature representations;
According to the degree of generalization - single, general and schematized;
By origin - based on perception, thinking or imagination;
According to the degree of volitional efforts - involuntary and voluntary.

Representations have the following properties: generality, fragmentation, clarity, instability.

Read more about ideas in psychology in our article “Mental processes: types and brief characteristics.”

Critical Assessment

Kuhn (1962) argues that a field of study can only be recognized as a science if the majority of its followers share a common point of view or paradigm. Kuhn believed that psychology was still pre-scientific, while others believe that it had already experienced scientific revolutions (Wundt's structuralism being replaced by Watson's behaviorism). The key point here is the following question: can psychology be considered a science if not all psychologists agree on what and how to study?

Memory

Memory is a mental function and a type of mental activity designed to preserve, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store data about events in the surrounding world and the body’s reactions for a long period of time, and use it.

The following memory processes are distinguished:

Memorization;
Storage;
Play;
Forgetting.

Memory is also divided into typologies:

By sensory modality - visual, kinesthetic, sound, gustatory, pain;
In terms of content – emotional, figurative, motor;
According to the organization of memorization - procedural, semantic, episodic;
According to time characteristics – ultra-short-term, short-term, long-term;
According to physiological characteristics - long-term and short-term;
According to the availability of funds - non-mediated and indirect;
According to the presence of a goal - involuntary and voluntary;
According to the level of development - verbal-logical, figurative, emotional and motor.

You will find ways and techniques for developing memory in a separate training on our website.

Modern psychology, its characteristics as a science

Modern psychology, its characteristics as a science

Psychology is a science that studies the patterns of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and mental activity of humans and groups of people. Combines humanitarian and natural science approaches

Psychology is the science of the soul. Psychology occupies a special place in the system of sciences. Psychology is about the most complex thing that is yet known to mankind - the science of the soul. In psychology, the object and subject of knowledge merge. Throughout its apparent antiquity, psychology is a relatively young science. Discovered in 1879 the first scientific laboratory (Winghelm Wundt). Psychology is at the intersection of the natural and human sciences.

Psychology at the current level of development is a very branched system of scientific disciplines, divided into fundamental and applied.

Fundamental branches of psychology develop general problems and study general patterns of the psyche that manifest themselves in people, regardless of what activity they engage in. Due to its universality, knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology is combined with the term “general psychology.”

General psychology studies the individual, highlighting his mental cognitive processes and personality. The psychology of cognitive processes studies such mental processes as sensations, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. Personality psychology studies the mental structure of the individual and the mental properties of the individual that determine the deeds and actions of a person.

Principles and methods of psychological research

The main methods of psychology are laboratory and natural experiments, scientific observation and the method of analyzing the products of mental activity.

*general scientific modeling method

It is expressed in the symbolic imitation of mental phenomena or in the organization of various types of human activity in an artificially constructed environment. With its help, it is possible to simulate some aspects of perception, memory, logical thinking, as well as create bionic models of mental activity

*biographical method of personality research. It consists in identifying the key factors in the formation of an individual, his life path, crisis periods of development, and characteristics of socialization. Current events in the life of an individual are also analyzed, possible events in the future are predicted, life schedules are drawn up,

*comparative genetic method is a way of studying mental patterns by comparing individual phases of mental development of individuals.

Principles of Psychology:

*Principle of determinism. The psyche and its highest form - consciousness - develop under the influence of the external environment, primarily social; human consciousness arises only in human society and exists as long as people exist;

*The principle of the unity of the psyche, consciousness and activity. Labor activity contributed to the emergence and development of human consciousness. Consciousness determines activity; thanks to consciousness, a person draws up a plan of activity, selects means of implementation, thinks about the expected result; consciousness determines the purposefulness of activity. Consciousness is determined by activity purposefully;

*The principle of development of the psyche, consciousness in activity. A person is born with natural inclinations. They may remain undeveloped if the child is not included in appropriate activities.

*Personal approach to the study of the human psyche. People differ in their natural inclinations, temperament, strength of the nervous system, and personal character: needs, motives, interests, views. All this must be taken into account when studying a specific person.

*The principle of the historical approach to the study of the human psyche. Study of human development in phylogenesis (history of the human race).

Research methods in modern psychology

The main research methods in psychology are observation and experiment.

Observation - perception - of a particular process, with the goal of identifying invariant signs of this process without active inclusion in the process itself.

Types of observation:

External observation is a method of recording the phenomenon or process being studied in which the observer is at a distance from the phenomenon and the recording is carried out from the side; Self-observation is the purposeful recording of one’s own thoughts, feelings, experiences, motives of behavior with subsequent analysis; Participant observation is the recording of a parameter under study, in which the observer is either within the group being studied, or he carries out professional activities during which the observation is carried out.

Often in observation, a “Gesell window” is used (observation is carried out through a special hole in which the observer is hidden from the observed group).

An experiment is a method of studying a phenomenon or parameter of interest under conditions specially created by the experimenter, and this condition provokes the appearance of the phenomenon of interest.

If during observation the psychologist takes a passive position, i.e. he expects the spontaneous appearance of the phenomenon of interest to him, then in the experiment the psychologist takes an active position, i.e. he himself purposefully creates the conditions that cause the phenomenon being studied.

Unlike observation, in which the results obtained are quite subjective, in an experiment there is the possibility of obtaining more objective data, since you can use statistical processing of the results obtained, and you can also use (if necessary) instruments.

The experiment may involve a large number of subjects, and observation is usually carried out on one person or a small group.

Types of experiments:

Laboratory; Natural experiment. Proposed by Lazursky, who combined observation and experiment into one method. A feature of a natural experiment is that the experimenter also creates the necessary conditions, but the subjects perceive them as natural, i.e., the experiment is carried out in conditions familiar to them; Formative or developing. This is the creation of special conditions in which the purposeful formation of some mental function occurs.

Consciousness and self-awareness

Each person has his own internal model of the world around him, and in psychology it is called consciousness, and interest in one’s own “I,” which has long been the subject of attention of psychologists, is called self-awareness.

Self-awareness is the subject’s consciousness of himself in contrast to the other – other subjects and the world in general; This is a person’s consciousness of his interaction with the objective world and the subjective world (psyche), his vital needs, thoughts, feelings, motives, instincts, experiences, actions. Consciousness is a reflection of objective reality in its separation from the subject’s existing relations to it, i.e. a reflection that highlights its objective, stable properties. The phylogenetic emergence of consciousness is based on collective work, in which the action of each subject acquires social meaning. Action is part of production and acquires meaning in it. According to the cultural-historical approach, a characteristic feature of consciousness is that the intermediate link between objective reality and consciousness are elements of socio-historical practice, which make it possible to build objective (generally accepted) pictures of the world

Consciousness and self-awareness of an individual collide, first of all, when consciousness and self-awareness in psychology a person begins to study and analyze certain phenomena of his own consciousness. In psychology this is reflection. By resorting to this, the individual engages in self-knowledge, subjecting a superficial or thorough analysis of his own behavior, feelings, emotions, and abilities.

Structure

Sanguine temperament.

A sanguine person quickly gets along with people, is cheerful, easily switches from one type of activity to another, but does not like monotonous work. He easily controls his emotions, quickly gets used to a new environment, and actively comes into contact with people. His speech is loud, fast, distinct and is accompanied by expressive facial expressions and gestures. But this temperament is characterized by some duality. If stimuli change quickly, novelty and interest of impressions are maintained all the time, a state of active excitement is created in a sanguine person and he manifests himself as an active, active, energetic person. If the influences are long-lasting and monotonous, then they do not maintain a state of activity, excitement, and the sanguine person loses interest in the matter, he develops indifference, boredom, and lethargy.

A sanguine person quickly develops feelings of joy, grief, affection and hostility, but all these manifestations of his feelings are unstable, do not differ in duration and depth. They arise quickly and can disappear just as quickly or even be replaced by the opposite. The mood of a sanguine person changes quickly, but, as a rule, a good mood prevails.

Phlegmatic temperament.

A person of this temperament is slow, calm, unhurried, and balanced. In his activities he demonstrates thoroughness, thoughtfulness, and perseverance. As a rule, he finishes what he starts. All mental processes in a phlegmatic person seem to proceed slowly. The feelings of a phlegmatic person are poorly expressed outwardly; they are usually inexpressive. The reason for this is the balance and weak mobility of nervous processes. In relationships with people, a phlegmatic person is always even-tempered, calm, moderately sociable, and has a stable mood. The calmness of a person of phlegmatic temperament is also manifested in his attitude towards events and phenomena in life, a phlegmatic person is not easily enraged and emotionally hurt. It is easy for a person of phlegmatic temperament to develop self-control, composure, and calmness. But a phlegmatic person should develop the qualities he lacks - greater mobility, activity, and not allow him to show indifference to activity, lethargy, inertia, which can very easily form under certain conditions. Sometimes a person of this temperament may develop an indifferent attitude towards work, towards life around him, towards people and even towards himself.

Choleric temperament.

People of this temperament are fast, excessively mobile, unbalanced, excitable, all mental processes occur quickly and intensely in them. The predominance of excitation over inhibition, characteristic of this type of nervous activity, is clearly manifested in the incontinence, impetuosity, hot temper, and irritability of the choleric person. Hence the expressive facial expressions, hasty speech, sharp gestures, unrestrained movements. The feelings of a person with choleric temperament are strong, usually clearly manifested, and arise quickly; the mood sometimes changes dramatically. The imbalance characteristic of a choleric person is clearly associated with his activities: he gets down to business with increasing intensity and even passion, showing impetuosity and speed of movements, working with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties. But in a person with a choleric temperament, the supply of nervous energy can quickly be depleted in the process of work, and then a sharp decline in activity may occur: elation and inspiration disappear, and the mood drops sharply. In communicating with people, a choleric person admits harshness, irritability, and emotional incontinence, which often does not give him the opportunity to objectively evaluate people’s actions, and on this basis he creates conflict situations in the team. Excessive straightforwardness, hot temper, harshness, and intolerance sometimes make it difficult and unpleasant to be in a group of such people.

Sensitivity thresholds

There are such sensitivity thresholds: lower absolute, upper absolute and discrimination sensitivity threshold.

That smallest stimulus force, which, acting on the analyzer, causes a barely noticeable sensation, is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity . The lower threshold characterizes the sensitivity of the analyzer.

There is a clear relationship between absolute sensitivity and threshold value: the lower the threshold, the higher the sensitivity, and vice versa. Our analyzers are very sensitive organs. They are excited by a very small amount of energy from the corresponding stimuli. This applies primarily to hearing, vision and smell. The threshold of one human olfactory cell for the corresponding aromatic substances does not exceed 8 molecules. And to create the sensation of taste, it takes at least 25,000 times more molecules than to create the sensation of smell. The very strength of the stimulus at which a sensation of this type still exists is called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity. Sensitivity thresholds are individual for each person.

This psychological pattern must be foreseen by the teacher, especially in the primary grades. Some children have reduced auditory and visual sensitivity. In order for them to see and hear well, it is necessary to create conditions for the best display of the teacher’s language and notes on the board. With the help of our senses, we can not only ascertain the presence or absence of a particular stimulus, but also distinguish between stimuli by their strength, intensity and quality.

The minimal increase in the strength of an effective stimulus that causes subtle differences between sensations is called the discrimination sensitivity threshold .

In life, we constantly notice changes in illumination, increase or decrease in sound. These are manifestations of the discrimination threshold or differential threshold.

2 Adaptation is a change in sensitivity under the influence of a constant stimulus, which manifests itself in a decrease or increase in thresholds. The degree of adaptation of different analyzing systems is not the same: high adaptability is characteristic of smelling and tactile sensations (we do not notice the pressure of clothing on the body), it is less in auditory and cold sensations. The phenomenon of adaptation in smelling sensations is well known: a person quickly gets used to an odorous stimulus and stops feeling it altogether. Adaptation to different aromatic substances occurs at different speeds.

Minor adaptation is characteristic of pain sensations. Pain signals the destruction of the body, so adaptation to pain can lead to the death of the body.

The visual analyzer distinguishes between adaptation to light and darkness.

Properties of perception.

Perception - psychic. Pozn. the process by which cognition of an object or environmental phenomena occurs. The world, as well as cognition as a whole in the totality of its components and parts under the direct influence of the stimulus on the analyzer.

Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but as images that make up specific objects.

Structurality - the object is perceived by consciousness as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.

Apperception - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.

Constancy is the constancy of the perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes.

Selectivity is the preferential selection of some objects over others.

Meaningfulness - an object is consciously perceived, mentally named (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class.

Understanding consists of stages:

Selection is the selection of an object of perception from the flow of information

Organization - an object is identified by a set of characteristics

Categorization and assignment to an object of properties of objects of this class

Classification of types of memory.

Memory - cognition the mental process by which the imprinting, storage and reproduction of received information into the human brain occurs.

Many types of memory can be represented in a number of classifications.

1Based on the time of preservation of the material, the following are distinguished:

sensory memory , which stores information at the receptor level, storage time is 0.3-1.0 s. Some of its forms have received special names: iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) sensory memory

short-term memory, in which the retention of material is limited to a certain, usually short, period of time (about 20 s) and the volume of elements simultaneously retained in memory (from 5 to 9);

long-term memory , providing long-term preservation of material, not limited by the time of storage of the material and the volume of retained information. working memory, which occupies an intermediate position between long-term and short-term memory. It is designed to preserve material for a predetermined period, i.e., for example, for the time necessary to solve a problem.

2By the nature of mental activity, the structure of memory includes:

motor memory stores information about various movements and their systems. The great importance of this type of memory is that it serves as the basis for the formation of various practical and work skills, as well as walking and writing skills. A sign of good motor memory is a person’s physical dexterity;

emotional memory stores experienced feelings, which act as signals that encourage action or restrain from actions that caused positive or negative experiences in the past. Emotional memory is stronger than other types of memory;

figurative memory can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory. Most people have the best developed visual and auditory types of memory. The development of other types, as a rule, is determined by the characteristics of professional activity: for example, taste memory in tasters of various products or olfactory memory in perfumers. Figurative memory is usually brighter in children and adolescents. In adults, the leading type of memory is not figurative, but logical memory;

verbal-logical memory is specifically human and plays a leading role in relation to other types of memory in the acquisition of knowledge. The memorized content is subjected to active mental processing, the material is analyzed, and logical parts are highlighted. What is understood is better remembered;

Mechanical memory allows a person to remember content that he cannot or does not want to comprehend. By resorting to repeated repetition, he seems to imprint the memorized material into the brain structures.

3By the nature of the goals of the activity, memory can be:

involuntary, when there is no special goal to remember something;

arbitrary , when a person has a goal to remember the material.

4 According to the means used for memorization, memory is:

direct natural memory , which is a direct mechanical recording of events and phenomena, is the simplest and most primitive type of memory, characteristic of the early stages of human development, both in phylogenetic and ontogenetic terms;

externally mediated memory , characteristic of a higher stage of human cultural and historical development and which is the first step towards mastering and managing one’s natural memory. This is an attempt to ensure one’s recollection, to resurrect some trace of memory with the help of stimuli that serve as a means of remembering. In this case, the incentives are external, material in nature: keepsakes, notes in a book, photographs and souvenirs. Thanks to these and other simple means, a person makes his memory more perfect and effective;

internally mediated memory , which is the highest form of memory - logical memory, in which there is a transition from the use of external means of memorization to internal elements of experience. In order for such a transition to take place, the internal elements themselves must be sufficiently formed. In this process of forming a person’s internal experience, the central role belongs to speech and thinking.

Mental operations

Thinking - pozn. Psycho. the process by which cognition of the environment occurs. The world in general and indirectly

The mental activity of people is carried out with the help of mental operations : comparison, analysis and synthesis, abstraction, generalization and concretization. All these operations are different aspects of the main activity of thinking - mediation, i.e. disclosure of increasingly significant objective connections and relationships between objects, phenomena, facts

Comparison is a comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities and differences between them. K. D. Ushinsky considered the comparison operation to be the basis of understanding. He wrote: “... comparison is the basis of all understanding and all thinking. We know everything in the world only through comparison... If you want any object of the external environment to be understood clearly, then distinguish it from the objects most similar to it and find in it similarities with the objects most distant from it: then only find out for yourself all the essential features of the subject, and this means understanding the subject" (

Analysis is the mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts or the mental isolation of individual properties, features, and qualities in it. When we perceive an object, we can mentally isolate one part after another and thus find out what parts it consists of.

Synthesis is the mental connection of individual parts of objects or the mental combination of their individual properties. If analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, then synthesis, based on the results of analysis, combining these elements, provides knowledge of the object as a whole. So, when reading, individual letters, words, phrases are highlighted in the text and at the same time they are continuously connected with each other: letters are combined into words, words into sentences, sentences into certain sections of the text. Or let’s remember the story about any event - individual episodes, their connection, dependence, etc.

Abstraction is the mental selection of essential properties and features of objects or phenomena while simultaneously abstracting from non-essential features and properties. For example, in order to understand the proof of a geometric theorem in general, one must abstract from the particular features of the drawing - it was made with chalk or a pencil, what letters indicate the vertices, the absolute length of the sides, etc.

Generalization is the unification of similar objects and phenomena according to their common characteristics (5). Generalization is closely related to abstraction. A person would not be able to generalize without being distracted from the differences in what he generalizes. It is impossible to mentally unite all the trees if you do not distract from the differences between them.

“ Abstraction and generalization, emphasizes S. L. Rubinstein, in their original forms, rooted in practice and carried out in practical actions related to needs, in their highest forms are two interconnected sides of a single thought process of revealing connections, relationships through which thought moves towards an ever deeper knowledge of objective reality in its essential properties and patterns. This cognition occurs in concepts, judgments and inferences.”

Logical forms of thinking.

The main forms of logical thinking include:

inferences;

judgments;

concepts. 1. Thanks to the first form, the individual is able, based on just some judgments, to draw a conclusion. In turn, the inference is divided into:

inductive (is a conclusion based on logic, using reflection from one to the whole, general. A striking example is physical laws, because many scientists study phenomena through a small number of experiments);

by analogy (used when there are judgments about the characteristics of a particular object by searching for similar properties with others. For example, a “wooden desk” and a “wooden stool” have more than one common characteristic. Thanks to analogy, scientific assumptions are formed);

deductive (reasoning from the whole to the singular. An example is the peculiarity of Sherlock Holmes's conclusions).

2. Judgment reflects the connection of events, phenomena and objects. It is expressed in an affirmative or negative form, and in this case reasoning acts as the main form of logical thinking. Happens:

true (denotes reality - “white snow”);

false (contradicts the real facts: “an apple is a plant”).

3. The concept tends to reflect signs, the relationship of objects, events. Expressed using words or word groups. Are divided into:

specific (this type of form of logical thinking describes one or a number of objects and this description concerns only a single object);

abstract (affects the general description of a particular property).

Classification of emotions

emotional states: joy, interest, surprise, anger, suffering, disgust, fear, contempt, shame, guilt.

All these emotions are necessary for a person, since they are a kind of signals that notify us about what the current situation is for us, positive or negative. For example, if a person experiences disgust, then he actually receives a signal that a certain situation is dangerous or destructive for him, not necessarily physically, perhaps the situation destroys him morally, and this is no less, and sometimes more important.

it is possible, the situation destroys him morally, and this is no less, and sometimes even more important.

classification of emotions and feelings

Some researchers identify the following types of emotions:

Negative; Positive; Neutral.

Classification of feelings

In addition to the classification of emotions in psychology there is also a qualification of feelings. It includes three main groups of feelings, moral or ethical, intellectual and aesthetic. The first group includes all the feelings that a person experiences when comparing real-life events with the values that were brought up and taught to us by society. For example, if a person sees someone littering on the street, depending on the concepts instilled in him in childhood, he may experience shame, indignation, and anger.

The second group of feelings is a kind of experience associated with the process of human cognitive activity. For example, a person may experience interest or irritation when studying a certain subject. These feelings can either help a person in the learning process or hinder him in this process; it has been scientifically proven that a person who is interested in the subject being studied remembers information much faster, and his thinking productivity increases. That is why competent teachers always try to instill in children a love for their subject and arouse their interest.

The third group of feelings represents a person’s emotional attitude towards all the beautiful things that he can see. At the same time, a person may experience inspiration or delight. Types of feelings

Moral (moral) feelings Intellectual feelings Aesthetic feelings

33 Forms of experiencing feelings Feeling is a human emotional process, reflecting a subjective evaluative attitude towards real or abstract objects. Feelings are distinguished from affects, emotions and moods[1].

It is generally accepted to distinguish the following forms of experiencing feelings : emotional tone, emotional state, mood, passion, stress, affect.

Sensual tone is the emotional coloring of sensation, perception, thinking, speech, etc. In some cases, the emotional coloring of perception turns out to be innate. For example, some smells and pain have a clearly expressed unpleasant sensory tone. But for the most part, the feeling tone is social, i.e. is a consequence of past experience (a pleasant companion, delicate foliage, etc.).

An emotional state is the direct experience of a feeling, for example the pleasure of good music. These conditions can be sthenic or asthenic, beneficial or negatively affecting a person.

Mood is a general emotional state that colors a person’s mental processes and behavior over a long period of time. Mood primarily depends on a person’s worldview, his social activities and orientation in general, but it can also be associated with health, time of year, weather, environmental conditions, etc.

Passion is a persistent and long-lasting manifestation of emotions that are the dominant motive of activity. Passion can be positive or negative. Passion for learning and professional improvement, which ensures flourishing and personal development, can be called positive. Passion in work is an important emotional quality of a teacher. Negative passions - alcohol, drugs, money, things. In the presence of this kind of passion, a person loses his moral character and becomes a slave to his lusts.

Stress is a mental state caused by extreme conditions for a given individual. Stress has a number of manifestations: physiological (changes in pulse, skin color, sweating, muscle tension) and mental (changes in emotional-motor and emotional-sensory stability, attention, memory, thinking, the appearance of impulsive actions, etc.). Currently, society is showing increased interest in people's stressful conditions. This is determined by the wide spread of professions associated with high mental stress.

Affect is a rapidly and violently flowing emotion of explosive nature, relatively short-term. Affect has pronounced external signs: increased motor activity or, conversely, atrophy of movements (“stunned” with joy). Affect affects a person due to the weakening of consciousness control over the course of emotions (anger, rage, fear, etc.).

The concept of will.

Will is the ability of a person to make decisions based on the thought process and direct his thoughts and actions in accordance with the decision made

One of the highest mental functions. Will as an active decision-making process is contrasted with a passive, unreflective reaction to surrounding stimuli - Weakness.

The concept of will was born in philosophy, where will is defined as the ability of the mind to self-determination, including moral, and the generation of specific causality.[2] Having moved to psychology and neurology, the definition of will lost its moral aspect and began to be interpreted only as a mental function. The traditional attribution of will to the highest mental functions speaks of the idea of it as a property of a person, but not of an animal, although some studies of animals call this idea into question.

In the most general sense, will is considered in psychology as a person’s ability for conscious self-regulation. Will is necessary both to perform an action and to refuse it. The basic element of will is the act of conscious decision making. Will is close to the concept of freedom in existential psychology in the sense that a person who makes such a conscious decision must break away from the immediate situation and either turn to his attitude towards himself, his values, or turn to imagination, logic and model the consequences of the proposed action.

In a more general philosophical and psychological understanding, will is presented by S. L. Rubinstein. Rubinstein writes: “actions regulated by a conscious goal and attitude towards it as a motive are volitional actions”[3]. This definition allows us to clearly separate the concept of will from the concept of desire, the concept of motivation. In this definition, there is a separation from the momentary situation in the form of an attitude towards the goal, its awareness. The relationship between motive and purpose is also important. In the case when the goal and motive coincide, at least in the consciousness of the subject, the subject completely controls his activity, it is not spontaneous in nature - will takes place in the activity.

Some psychologists confuse the concept of will as a mental function with a person’s ability to strive to achieve a goal, as a result of which one can find the following definitions: “Will is the conscious regulation by the subject of his activities and behavior, ensuring overcoming difficulties in achieving the goal...”[4].

The concept of will also occurs in sociology. Sociologist F. N. Ilyasov, for example, defines will as “the ability of a subject to create a hierarchized system of values and make efforts to achieve values of a higher order, neglecting lower order values”[5].

Structure of an act of will

Volitional actions can be simple and complex. Simple volitional actions include those in which a person goes towards the intended goal without hesitation. In a complex act of will, a rather complex process intervening between the impulse and the action itself intersects.

In a complex volitional act, at least four phases can be distinguished: the first phase is the emergence of motivation and preliminary goal setting, the second phase is discussion and struggle of motives, the third phase is decision making, the fourth phase is execution of the decision.

The peculiarity of the course of a volitional act is that the mechanism for its implementation is volitional efforts at all phases. The implementation of an act of will is always associated with a feeling of neuropsychic tension.

modern psychology, its characteristics as a science

Psychology at the current level of development is a very branched system of scientific disciplines, divided into fundamental and applied.

General psychology studies the individual, highlighting his mental cognitive processes and personality. The psychology of cognitive processes studies such mental processes as

Imagination

Imagination is the ability of a person’s consciousness to create and manage ideas, ideas and images. It plays a major role in mental processes such as planning, modeling, play, memory and creativity. This is the basis of a person’s visual-figurative thinking, which allows him to solve certain problems and understand the situation without practical intervention. A type of imagination is fantasy.

There is also a classification of imagination:

By degree of direction - active and passive imagination;
According to the results - reproductive and creative imagination;
By type of images – abstract and concrete;
According to the degree of volitional effort - unintentional and intentional;
Techniques: typification, schematization, hyperbolization, agglutination.

Mechanisms of imagination:

Typing;
Accenting;
Schematization;
Agglutination;
Hyperbolization.

Imagination is directly related to creativity. Sensitivity to emerging problems, ease of combining things, and observation skills contribute to finding creative solutions. The characteristics of imagination can be considered accuracy, originality, flexibility and fluency of thinking.

Read more about imagination in psychology in the article “Mental processes: types and brief description.” In addition, the lesson “Development of Creative Imagination” from our course on creative thinking is devoted to the problems of developing imagination.

Thinking

In general psychology there are many definitions of the thinking process. According to one of the most popular definitions:

Thinking is the highest stage of human information processing and the process of establishing connections between phenomena and objects of the external world.

It is the highest level of human cognition, as a process of reflection of the surrounding reality in his brain.

Thinking is divided into:

Abstract-logical;
Visual-figurative;
Specific subject;
Visually effective.

And the main forms of thinking are:

Concept – thoughts that highlight and generalize phenomena and objects;
Judgment - denial or affirmation of something;
Inference - conclusion.

These and other components of the thinking process are discussed in our logical thinking training.

Relevance of the problem

Modern applied psychology considers emotional stress to be the most harmful, because it can lead the mind to a dangerous form of disorder. Every year a person faces a lot of difficulties, and psychological preparation for him becomes simply an irreplaceable factor. For this purpose, preventive measures have been developed to help a person navigate difficult tasks, such as accidents, terrorist attacks, and natural disasters. Help in such difficult tests is provided by the concept of psychology of extreme situations.

Typical shock situations are considered to be:

spatial disorientation;
monotony - an unchanging state for a long time;
temporary disorientation;
loneliness;
constant risk to life;
restriction of information;
lack of autonomy.

Speech

Speech is a form of communication between people through linguistic structures. In this process, thoughts are formed and formulated using language, and the received speech information is perceived and understood. Speech is a form of existence of human language, because. speech is language in action.

Language (speech) performs the following functions:

A tool for intellectual activity;
Method of communication;
A way of existence, as well as the assimilation and transfer of experience.

Speech is the most important part of human activity, which contributes to knowledge of the world around us and the transfer of knowledge and experience to others. Being a means of expressing thoughts, it is one of the main mechanisms of human thinking. It depends on the form of communication and is thus divided into oral (speaking/listening) and written (writing/reading).

Speech has the following properties:

Content – the number and significance of expressed aspirations, feelings and thoughts;
Clarity – correctness;
Expressiveness – emotional coloring and richness of language;
Effectiveness is the influence exerted on other people, their feelings, thoughts, emotions, etc.

You can read more about speaking and writing in our trainings on public speaking and writing.

Emotions

Emotions are mental processes that reflect the subject’s attitude to possible or real situations. Emotions should not be confused with such emotional processes as feelings, affects and moods. To date, emotions have been poorly studied and are understood differently by many experts. For this reason, the definition given above cannot be considered the only correct one.

Characteristics of emotions are:

Tone (valence) – positive or negative emotions;
Intensity – strong or weak emotions;
Stenicity – influence on human activity: sthenic (inducing action) and asthenic (reducing activity);
Content – reflects different facets of the meaning of situations that arouse emotions.

Emotions in most cases manifest themselves in physiological reactions, because the latter depend on them. But today there is debate about the fact that intentional physiological states can cause certain emotions.

These and other issues of understanding and managing emotions are discussed in our acting training.

First aid

It is very important to be able to become a psychologist for someone in need at the right time, because a specialist is not always nearby. The problems of modern psychology affect everyone, but sometimes not everyone wants to accept their condition or believe in the emotional disturbances of a loved one, or see their changes in their thinking mechanism. You should not close your eyes, if there are prerequisites for deviations from the norm, you need to take measures:

in case of apathy, try to awaken interest in every little thing;
Having noticed hallucinations and a delusional state, take him to a quiet place, do not argue, remove dangerous objects;
when a person is in a stupor, the points on the forehead located above the eyes should be massaged;
in an aggressive state, it is necessary to let emotions spill out regarding an object that is safe for a person;
if overexcited, take him away from people and talk calmly;
crying subsides well while talking about experiences;
fear goes away if a person has a massage of tense parts of the body and at the same time conducts a dialogue;
a person in hysterics must be brought to his senses by an unexpected action: break something, hit him on the cheek or shout, and then put the victim to rest.

Such techniques in teaching psychology will help everyone be prepared in shock situations to more calmly cope with stress and maintain their nerves.

Will

Will is the ability of a person to consciously control his psyche and actions. The achievement of set goals and results can be considered a manifestation of will. It has many positive qualities that influence the success of human activity. The main volitional qualities are considered to be persistence, courage, patience, independence, focus, determination, initiative, endurance, courage, self-control and others. Will encourages action, allows a person to manage desires and realize them, develops self-control and strength of character.

Signs of an act of will:

Efforts of will in many cases are aimed at overcoming one’s weaknesses;
Performing any action without receiving pleasure from this process;
Availability of an action plan;
Putting effort into doing something.

Read more about will in psychology in the articles “Mental processes: types and brief description” and “Will and volitional actions.”

Mental properties and states

Mental properties are stable mental phenomena that influence what a person does and give his socio-psychological characteristics. The structure of mental properties includes abilities, character, temperament and orientation.

Orientation is a conglomerate of needs, goals and motives of a person that determine the nature of his activities. It expresses the whole meaning of a person’s actions and his worldview.

Temperament gives characteristics to a person’s activity and behavior. It can manifest itself in increased sensitivity, emotionality, resistance to stress, the ability to adapt to external conditions or the lack thereof, etc.

Character is a set of traits and qualities that are regularly manifested in a person. There are always individual characteristics, but there are also characteristics that are characteristic of all people - purposefulness, initiative, discipline, activity, determination, perseverance, endurance, courage, will, etc.

Abilities are the mental properties of a person, reflecting his characteristics, which allow a person to successfully engage in certain types of activities. Abilities are distinguished between special (for a specific type of activity) and general (for most types of activity).

Mental states are a system of psychological characteristics that provide a person’s subjective perception of the world around him. Mental states influence how mental processes proceed, and when regularly repeated, they can become part of a person’s personality - its property.

Mental states are related to each other. But they can still be classified. The most common ones are:

Personality states;
States of consciousness;
States of intelligence.

Types of mental states are divided according to the following criteria:

According to the source of formation - conditioned by the situation or personally;
According to the degree of expression - superficial and deep;
By emotional coloring – positive, neutral and negative;
By duration – short-term, medium-duration, long-term;
According to the degree of awareness - conscious and unconscious;
According to the level of manifestation - physiological, psychophysiological, psychological.

The following mental states are common to most people:

Optimal performance;
Tension;
Interest;
Inspiration;
Fatigue;
Monotony;
Stress;
Relaxation;
Dream;
Wakefulness.

Other common mental states include love, anger, fear, surprise, admiration, depression, detachment and others.

Read more about mental properties and states in the article “Properties of Mental States.”

What books will help a beginner

What books should I start with to get to know myself and the science of psychology? Initially, let’s say that this can be either non-educational literature or textbooks or monographs on the topic under consideration.

L. Burbo “5 injuries that prevent you from being yourself.” This book will tell you in an easy and understandable way about the five main personal traumas. He will also tell you what methods and methods can be used to work them out;
D. Kehoe “The subconscious can do anything.” Reveals such elements as consciousness and subconsciousness, as well as how they work and interact with each other;
K. Jung “Memories, Reflections, Dreams.” The book is quite popular in Jung's writings. It reveals deep psychology. In general, all of Jung's works are required reading, as they reveal the basis and basis of psychology;
D. Goleman “Emotional Intelligence.” Reveals the characteristics of our emotions and the emotional functioning of the brain.

If you want to go deeper into more theoretical knowledge, any general psychology textbook will do. It can be purchased, downloaded or borrowed from the library. The choice is yours.

Motivation

Motivation is the drive to perform an action. This process controls human behavior and determines its direction, stability, activity and organization. Thanks to motivation, a person can satisfy his needs.

There are several types of motivation:

External – due to external conditions;
Internal – due to internal circumstances (content of activity);
Positive – based on positive incentives;
Negative – based on negative incentives;
Sustainable – determined by human needs;
Unstable - requires additional incentive.

Motivation can be of the following types:

From something (basic type);
To something (basic type);
Individual;
Group;
Cognitive.

There are certain motives that in most cases guide people:

Self-affirmation;
Identification with other people;
Power;
Self-development;
Achieving something;
Social significance;
The desire to be in the company of certain people;
Negative factors.

Motivation issues are discussed in more detail in the fourth lesson of this course, as well as in the article “How Motivation Works.”

Temperament and character

Temperament is a complex of mental characteristics of a personality associated with its dynamic characteristics (that is, with tempo, rhythm, intensity of individual mental processes and states). The basis of character formation.

The following main types of temperament are distinguished:

Phlegmatic – signs: emotional stability, perseverance, calmness, regularity;
Choleric – signs: frequent mood swings, emotionality, imbalance;
Sanguine – signs: liveliness, mobility, productivity;
Melancholic – signs: impressionability, vulnerability.

Different types of temperament have different properties that can have a positive or negative impact on a person's personality. Temperament type does not affect abilities, but it does affect how people express themselves in life. Depending on temperament there are:

Perception, thinking, attention and other mental processes;
Stability and plasticity of mental phenomena;
Pace and rhythm of actions;
Emotions, will and other mental properties;
Direction of mental activity.

Character is a complex of permanent mental properties of a person that determine his behavior. Character traits form the properties of a person that determine his lifestyle and behavior.

Personality traits vary across groups. There are four in total:

Attitude towards people - respect, sociability, callousness, etc.;
Attitude to activity – conscientiousness, diligence, responsibility, etc.;
Attitude towards oneself – modesty, arrogance, self-criticism, selfishness, etc.;
Attitude to things - care, accuracy, etc.

Each person has a character unique to him, the properties and characteristics of which are determined, for the most part, by social factors. There is also always an accentuation of character - strengthening of its individual traits. It should also be noted that there is a close relationship between character and temperament, because temperament influences the development of certain character traits and the manifestation of its characteristics, and at the same time, using some of its character traits, a person, if necessary, can control the manifestations of his temperament.

Read more about character and temperament in the third lesson of this course and in the article “Character and Temperament.”

All of the above, of course, is not comprehensive information about what general human psychology is. This lesson is intended only to give a general idea and indicate directions for further study.

Application of psychological knowledge

In general, understanding yourself and people and being able to influence them is important in a variety of areas, which is why psychology can be different: children’s, family, pedagogical, corporate, military, and the like.

The principle here is simple. If you know how to name and describe your experience or some other mental activity, you are aware of it, understand it, and even master it to some extent.

Where to start studying

We have already looked at what psychology studies. But where should a beginner start? In fact, you can read information randomly on topics of interest if you do not want to study science systematically. For example, you are interested in how to get out of conflict situations. That's why you read the relevant materials. Such study, of course, will not make you a professional.

If you want a more comprehensive approach to learning, then you need to start with the theoretical foundations. Just the same, we need to focus on studying the subject and object of psychology, tasks, branches and sections. And then layer on the theory other material, more applied and practical.

Advice: buy books on psychology. Everything in them is put together in the correct and necessary sequence. Given definitions and theory. For practical knowledge, you can turn to the Internet.

General outlook

Studying psychology for overall development is a good idea. The general horizons need to be constantly expanded. Firstly, this will allow you to improve the quality of your self-education and the depth of your personality. Secondly, you will be able to discuss a wider range of topics. Thirdly, this is a good way of self-knowledge.

Child psychology

Many young parents and expectant mothers are often interested in how to properly raise their child. It is in this situation that the section of child psychology comes to the rescue. The child's psyche is strikingly different from that of an adult.

Special books and manuals can answer many questions:

How to talk to a child;
How to build trusting relationships;
How to overcome a crisis of a certain age (3, 7, 13 years);
How to explain something to a child;
How to help him;
How to love and show love towards children, etc.

Psychology of creativity

Many creative works influence the human psyche, evoking in him feelings of beauty, compassion, empathy, disgust, etc. Therefore, in order for a picture or film to achieve its result, it is necessary to understand how and what elements can influence the human psyche.

If you pay attention to works of the horror genre, you will see special techniques that are used to create an atmosphere of fear and fear. It is also based on the functioning of our brain and subconscious mind. Therefore, studying psychological foundations can be a good basis for creativity.

Another example is designers. They have the concept of “color psychology”. The psyche reacts to certain shades in a specific way. Therefore, when creating logos, projects, websites, banners, designers should be guided by the basics of color psychology.

Psychology is common in design, business

Psychology of success

Motivation and self-confidence are the engines of our success in life. Therefore, now on the shelves of bookstores you can often find literature that is devoted to how to achieve success, profit, and how to build a business.

Studying psychological science allows you to choose the right method for achieving goals and results. You can find many techniques for visualizing your dreams, for working through insecurities, etc. This really allows you to achieve success, since everything comes from our head.

Self-development

Using knowledge of psychology, you can work through your own conflicts and problems:

Excessive self-esteem;
Egocentrism;
Excessive altruism;
Uncertainty;
Closedness;
Work through negative character traits;
Understand which relationships are pulling you back and get out of them;
Correctly defend your personal boundaries;
Protect your interests and desires;
Self-esteem and respect from others.