Psychology is the scientific study of consciousness and behavior. Psychology is a multi-faceted discipline and includes many areas such as human development, sport, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes.
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Psychology is a fairly new science, with most of its advances occurring in the last 150 years. However, its origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, 400 – 500 BC.
The emphasis, of course, was philosophical: one great thinker, Socrates, influenced Plato, who in turn influenced Aristotle. Philosophers used to discuss many of the topics that modern psychology now studies, such as memory, free will, drive, etc.
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The beginning of psychology as a discipline
In the early days of psychology there were two dominant theoretical schools. An American psychologist named William James (1842-1910) developed an approach that became known as functionalism. He argued that the mind is constantly changing and there is no point in looking for fundamental blocks. Instead, you should focus on how and why the body does things. It has been suggested that psychologists look for the root cause of behavior and the mental processes that occur. This emphasis on the causes and consequences of behavior has influenced modern psychology.
Structuralism was the name given to the approach first proposed by Wilhelm Wundt. The term comes from Edward Titchener, an American psychologist who was trained by Wundt. Structuralism relied on introspection, a method of inquiry through which subjects made connections between what was going on in their minds while performing a specific task. However, this proved to be an unreliable method because there were too many individual differences in the experiences and reports of the study subjects.
Despite the failure of self-analysis, Wundt is an important figure in the history of psychology, as he opened the first laboratory dedicated to psychology in 1879, and its discovery is generally considered the beginning of modern psychology. Wundt was important because he separated psychology from philosophy by analyzing the workings of the mind using more objective and standardized procedures.
Because psychology is a science, it attempts to investigate the causes of behavior using systematic and objective procedures of observation, measurement, and analysis, supported by theoretical interpretations, generalizations, explanations, and predictions.
Transactional Analysis, 1956
The history of transactional analysis begins in 1956, when the American psychologist and psychiatrist Eric Berne was once again denied membership by a professional psychoanalytic organization, which served as an incentive for independent activity and the development of his own direction. As a science, transactional analysis was recognized after the death of its founder and received its maximum development at the end of the 20th century. According to representatives of transactional analysis, personality is multi-subjective and has three components: exteropsyche, neopsyche and archeopsyche, which are expressed by the ego states “Parent”, “Adult” and “Child”.
The ego state of the parent is determined by the attitudes received primarily from the parents, i.e. adopted from outside. The ego state of an adult does not depend on the person’s age and external attitudes; it contributes to an objective and rational perception of reality and decision-making. The child's ego state contains all the attitudes and motivations that occur in childhood. Each of these ego states is formed as a result of experiences received, starting from birth, and together determine human behavior.
History of psychology
In a philosophical context, psychology existed about a thousand years ago in Ancient Greece, Egypt, India, Persia and China.
In 387 BC. Plato suggested that mental processes occur in the brain, and in 335 BC. e. Aristotle suggested that it was in the heart.
Avicenna, a famous Muslim physician born in 980 AD, studied and treated epilepsy, nightmares and poor memory. It has been argued that the first hospitals for the treatment of psychiatric illnesses were established by Islamic doctors in the Middle Ages.
In 1774, Franz Mesmer suggested that hypnosis, or “mesmerism,” could help treat certain types of mental illness.
In 1793, Philippe Pinel released the first patients with mental health problems from confinement, a signal for more humane treatment.
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt of Germany founded psychology as an independent experimental field of study. He created the first laboratory that conducted psychological research exclusively at the University of Leipzig. Wundt is known today as the founder of psychology.
In 1890, American philosopher William James published a book called The Principles of Psychology. This has been discussed by psychologists around the world for many decades. That same year, New York State passed the Public Assistance Act, which required people with mental health problems to leave their homes and go to a hospital for treatment.
Hermann Abbinghaus, who lived from 1850 to 1909 and worked at the University of Berlin, was the first psychologist to study memory intensively.
Ivan Pavlov, who lived from 1849 to 1936, conducted a famous experiment that showed that dogs salivate in anticipation of food, introducing the concept of conditioning.
Sigmund Freud, who lived from 1856 to 1939, developed the field of psychoanalysis, a type of psychotherapy. He used interpretive methods, self-analysis and clinical observation.
He focused on resolving unconscious conflicts, mental disorders and psychopathology. Freud argued that the unconscious was the cause of most people's thoughts and behavior, as well as mental health problems.
E. B. Titchener was a strong believer in structuralism, which focuses on the question: "What is consciousness?" William James and John Dewey were strong proponents of functionalism, which stated, “What is consciousness for?” The debate between functionalists and structuralists led to a rapid increase in interest in psychology.
Behaviorism
In 1913, American psychologist John B. Watson founded a new field that changed the whole of psychology. Behavior, he argued, is not the result of internal mental processes, but the result of how we respond to our environment. Behaviorism focuses on how people form new behaviors from their environment.
Humanism
Humanists viewed behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory as too inhuman. Rather than being victims of the environment or the unconscious, they suggested that humans are inherently perfect and that our own mental processes play an active role in our behavior. The humanist movement places a lot of emphasis on emotions, free will, and the subjective assessment of experience.
Cognitive theory
Emerging in the 1970s, it is considered the most recent school of thought in psychology. Cognitive theorists believe that we perceive information from the environment through our senses and then process the data mentally, organizing it, manipulating it, remembering it, and connecting it to information we already know. Cognitive theory applies to language, memory, learning, perceptual systems, mental disorders, and dreams.
Psychologists are now studying all of these approaches and choosing what seems to be the best of each approach for a particular situation.
Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology is a branch of Western psychology of the twentieth century that studied the psyche from the point of view of holistic structures (gestalts).
Among the founders of this direction are Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Keller and Kurt Koffka. Kurt Lewin also made a significant contribution to the development of Gestalt theory. Based on Gestalt psychology, Friedrich Perls created a new direction of psychotherapy - Gestalt therapy.
Gestalt psychology: M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka, W. Keller, K. Levin
Representatives of this direction believed that the principles of the division of consciousness are incorrect, just as perception is not a simple set of feelings. Gestalt psychologists focused their attention not on individual parts of phenomena, but on their integrity. Thus, they came to the conclusion that consciousness connects all components into a single whole, forming a gestalt.
Gestalt is the basic concept of Gestalt psychology; translated from German it means “structure”, “integral configuration”, i.e. a certain organized whole, the properties of which are not reducible to the properties of its parts.
Research by Gestalt psychologists made it possible to discover the laws of perception, as well as the principles of Gestalt : proximity, continuity, similarity, simplicity, figure-ground, etc.
Gestalt psychology originates from the discovery by M. Wertheimer of the phi phenomenon (the illusion of moving two alternately switched on light sources), which proved that perception is not reduced to the sum of individual sensations.
Further contributions were made by K. Koffka, who studied the development of perception in children and the perception of color by children. He came to the conclusion that the combination of figure and background against which an object is shown plays an important role in the development of perception. He also formulated the law of “transduction ,” which proved that children do not perceive the colors themselves, but their relationships.
V. Keller discovered the phenomenon of insight (inner illumination), proving that it is inherent not only in animals, but also in people. He also introduced the principle of isomorphism.
K. Lewin created the psychological field theory . He believed that the reason for human activity is intention, i.e. need. The objects that surround us create the psychological field in which a person finds himself and develops. By influencing a person, objects that have certain charges cause needs in him, and these, in turn, cause tension. Lewin called this tension quasi-need . In such a situation, a person strives for relaxation, i.e. satisfying this need.
Perspectives in psychology
Psychologists study behavior from different psychological perspectives, each based on a common set of assumptions about what is important to study and how to study it.
Some conduct detailed biological studies of the brain, others examine how we obtain information, others analyze the role of evolution, and still others examine the influence of culture and society.
The classic modern views in psychology on the adoption of scientific strategies were the behaviorists, who were famous for their dependence on controlled laboratory experiment and rejection of any invisible or subconscious forces as causes of behavior.
Later, cognitive psychology also adopted this rigorous, scientific, laboratory-based approach as applied to memory, perception, cognitive development, mental illness, and more.
Classic psychoanalysis, 1900
The history of the psychoanalytic direction begins in 1900, when the first edition of the book “The Interpretation of Dreams” by the Austrian neurologist and psychologist Sigmund Freud was published. Subsequently, S. Freud's theory gains enormous popularity both among psychologists and among the public. This explains the rapid development of psychoanalysis in America and Europe, as well as the formation of an entire psychoanalytic “family”, which, in addition to classical psychoanalysis, also included:
- analytical psychology;
- individual psychology;
- transactional analysis.
The difference between the psychoanalytic vision and the behavioral one lies in the attribution of the driving forces of human activity to the internal components of the body, and not to those formed as a result of external interaction with the world. In classical psychoanalysis, the theory is based on a two-dimensional structural model of the human psyche developed by S. Freud, based on which the components of the psyche are the conscious and unconscious on the one hand and the elements “It”, “I” and “Super-I” on the other hand. The decomposition of the psyche into components explains the source of the formation of neuroses as a conflict of impulses emanating from the “It” and the “Super-Ego”, to resolve which the “I” uses, first of all, the repression of the conscious into the unconscious. Thus, classical psychoanalysis simultaneously belongs to both the nosological and anthropological axes.
Critical Assessment
Kuhn (1962) argues that a field of study can only be recognized as a science if the majority of its followers share a common point of view or paradigm. Kuhn believed that psychology was still pre-scientific, while others believe that it had already experienced scientific revolutions (Wundt's structuralism being replaced by Watson's behaviorism). The key point here is the following question: can psychology be considered a science if not all psychologists agree on what and how to study?
The science
Psychology is a diverse field. Psychologists conduct basic and applied research, serve as consultants to communities and organizations, diagnose and treat people, and train future psychologists and those in other disciplines. They test intelligence and personality.
Many psychologists work as health care professionals. They assess behavioral and mental function and well-being. Other psychologists study how people relate to each other and to technology and work to improve those interactions.
Application of psychological research can reduce the economic burden of disease on government and society as people learn to make choices that improve their health and well-being. Progress made in educational assessments helps students with learning difficulties. Psychological science helps educators understand how children think, perceive, and remember, helping to develop effective teaching methods. Psychological science promotes justice by helping courts understand the intent of criminals, the truth of evidence, and the credibility of certain types of evidence or testimony.
Psychology is the study of thinking and behavior. It is the study of thinking, how it works and how it influences behavior. Science covers every aspect of human experience, from brain function to communication, from child development to elder care.”
Psychologists and psychotherapists work together to help people with mental disorders, but they are not exactly the same. A psychologist treats a patient through psychotherapy, helping to relieve symptoms through behavior changes. The role of a psychotherapist, who is a medical doctor, focuses more on prescribing medications and other interventions to treat mental health disorders.
Facts about psychology
- Psychology is the study of behavior and the mind.
- There are different types of psychology such as cognitive, social and developmental psychology.
- A person with a condition that affects their mental health can greatly benefit from treatment with a psychologist.
- A psychologist may offer treatment that focuses on behavioral adaptations.
- A psychotherapist is a doctor who is likely to focus on the medical treatment of mental health problems.
Directions of psychology
There are different types of psychology that serve different purposes. There is no fixed way to classify them, but here are some common types.
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology integrates science, theory, and practice to understand, predict, and treat problems of adjustment, disability, and distress. This promotes adaptation and personal development. Clinical psychology can help us understand, prevent and alleviate psychologically-related disorder or dysfunction, and promote a person's well-being and personal development.
A clinical psychologist concentrates on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social and behavioral aspects of human functioning throughout an individual's life span, across cultures and at different socio-economic levels.
Psychological assessment and psychotherapy are central to the practice of clinical psychology, but clinical psychologists are often also involved in research, teaching, litigation, and other areas of practice.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology studies internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language. It looks at how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn. It is closely related to neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics.
Cognitive psychologists look at how people receive, process, and store information. Practical applications include how to improve memory, improve decision-making accuracy, or how to create educational programs to accelerate learning.
Developmental psychology
It is the scientific study of the systematic psychological changes that a person experiences throughout life, often referred to as human development. It is aimed not only at infants and young children, but also at teenagers, adults and the elderly.
Factors include motor skills, problem solving, moral understanding, language acquisition, emotion, self-esteem, and personality development.
It also looks at the innate mental structures that inhibit experiential learning, or how a person interacts with the environment and how this affects development. Developmental psychology overlaps with fields such as linguistics.
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology looks at how human behavior, such as language, is affected by psychological changes during evolution.
The evolutionary psychologist believes that many human psychological traits are adaptive in the sense that they have allowed us to survive for millennia.
Forensic psychology
Forensic psychology involves the application of psychology to criminal investigation and the law. It involves assessing psychological factors that may influence a case or behavior and presenting the results in court.
A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a science in the criminal justice system and civil courts.
Health Psychology
Health psychology is also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology. She studies how behavioral, biological, and social context influence disease and health.
A doctor will often look at the biological causes of a disease first, but a psychologist will focus on the whole person and what affects their health. This may include socioeconomic status, educational level, and behaviors that may influence the disease, such as noncompliance with prescriptions and medications. Clinical psychologists typically work alongside other health care professionals in clinical settings.
Neuropsychology
Neuropsychology looks at the structure and function of the brain in relation to behavior and psychological processes. Neuropsychology may be applicable when the condition involves lesions in the brain.
A neuropsychological assessment is used to determine a person's likelihood of developing behavior problems after a suspected or diagnosed brain injury such as a stroke. The results may allow the doctor to provide treatment that can help the person achieve possible improvements to the cognitive damage that has already occurred.
Labor psychology
In a corporate setting, a psychologist can help increase productivity and improve relationships between employees. Professional psychologists are involved in assessing and making recommendations regarding people's performance at work and in the learning process. They help companies find more efficient ways to operate and understand how people and groups behave at work. This information can help improve efficiency, effectiveness, job satisfaction and motivate employees.
Social Psychology
Social psychology uses scientific methods to understand how social phenomena influence human behavior. It attempts to explain how feelings, behavior and thoughts are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other people.
The social psychologist examines group behavior, social perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are seen as key to understanding social behavior.
Other areas of focus include military, consumer, educational, cross-cultural, and environmental psychology. The number of destinations continues to grow constantly.
Behaviorism, 1912
The earliest direction that reduces psychology to reflexes and is still relevant today is behaviorism. The prerequisites for its development are the studies of the American psychologist and educator Edward Lee Thorndike on animal behavior, which were based on problems of skill. In understanding human psychology, the concept of E. L. Thorndike was transferred by the American psychologist John Brodes Watson, who in 1912 reflected the principles of the new direction of psychology in his article [1]. In Russia, I. P. Pavlov and V. M. Bekhterev, who studied reflexology, are considered representatives of behaviorism or behavioral psychology.
The initial methodological position of psychologists in this area is to provide the client with control over his actions, which allows for changes in his behavior. It is behavior, and not consciousness, that is considered the subject of psychology. Behavior is characterized by responsive movements (reactions) of the body to external influences (stimuli) of the environment. Adherents of the behavioral direction base their work on the study of the conditions for the emergence, consolidation, and disappearance of habits and skills. This approach is characterized by scientific pragmatism, control of results and the reduction of consciousness to physiological processes, which serves as a reason for criticism from representatives of personality-oriented trends.
Psychologists
A psychologist's work can range from counseling people with anxiety to advising organizations on how to build better teams.
Consciousness is very complex, and conditions associated with it are difficult to treat. Thought processes, emotions, memories, dreams, perceptions, etc. cannot be seen physically like a skin rash or heart defect. Although it is possible to observe physical signs of some mental health problems. Many theories in psychology are based on observation of human behavior.
A practicing psychologist meets with patients, conducts an assessment to find out what is bothering them or what is causing them any difficulties, and recommends specific treatment, such as through counseling and psychotherapy.
Psychologists may have other roles. They may conduct research to advise health authorities and others on social and other issues, assess children who are struggling in school, conduct workshops on how to prevent bullying, work with company recruitment teams and much more.
Every physical illness has a mental aspect. How we react to illness and how we cope with it varies greatly from person to person.
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Cognitivism, 1955
In the late 50's - early 60's. XX century a cognitive revolution is taking place in psychology, which puts in first place the importance of internal cognitive processes that determine human behavior. According to this principle, a person does not simply react to external stimuli, but processes information from the outside and creates his own models of reality.
American psychologist Albert Ellis is considered to be one of the founders of the cognitive approach. In his opinion, a person has pronounced self-reflection and has innate multidirectional groups of attitudes: rational and irrational, constructive and destructive, striving for love, growth and striving for destruction, self-accusation. Their combination ultimately determines behavior patterns. The concept of cognitive direction is complemented by the ABC conceptual scheme of A. Ellis, where A is the activating event, B is the opinion about the event, C is the consequence of the event (emotional and behavioral).
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