Linguistic means that make speech more expressive: what are they and how to use them

How do people communicate with each other?

Communication is carried out using verbal and non-verbal means.
Of course, people communicate with each other directly and use language and speech for this, as well as signals transmitted by our body, in particular, the voice and its intonation, movements of the hands, fingers, and body posture. With the development of information technology, people can communicate while being far away from each other, both in real time and when it is convenient for them. In addition, communication between people can occur indirectly thanks to, for example, sheets, books, drawings.

Types of communication by content

The structure of a communicative act is largely determined by its content. Depending on these factors, the following types of communication can be distinguished:

1. Material. Pursues the exchange of any objects as its goal.
2. Cognitive. Involves the exchange of knowledge and facts.
3. Air-conditioned. In the process of such communication, information about the physiological or mental state of the interlocutors is transmitted.
4. Motivational. Occurs with the purpose of stimulating the formation of interests and goals.
5. Activity. Occurs in the process of performing any actions and operations in order to demonstrate skills and abilities.

By what means did they communicate?

The German used words, and the Hungarian used gestures and body movements. Both one means of communication and the second occupy a lot of space in our lives.

What means of communication do people prefer? There is a Scandinavian saga about communication, which was retold by academician A.A. Beletsky. It tells how one day a dispute took place between a sage theologian and a Viking eye. The theologian showed one finger, to which the one-eyed Viking responded. showing two fingers.

The theologian showed three fingers, after which the Viking showed his fist, then the theologian ate the cherry and spat out the pit. The Viking found a gooseberry in his pocket and ate it.

Here the theologian admitted defeat. “What were you arguing about?” — The jury members asked the theologian. “I showed one finger, indicating that there is only one God in the world. He objected with two fingers, besides God the Father, there is also God the Son. I then showed three fingers, meaning that to be precise, there is also the Holy Spirit. To this he showed his fist, answering that the Trinity is still one.

I felt that I could not defeat him in theology, and changed the topic of the debate.

After eating the cherry, I said that life is sweet. But even here he answered me very aptly: having eaten gooseberries, he confirmed that one must live even when life is sour, “What were you arguing about? “They asked the one-eyed Viking. “I didn’t even think of arguing with him on theological topics. This impudent person showed that I have one eye. I told him that my one eye is worth his two.

He continued: he and I together have three eyes. After that, I said that impudent people like him should be taught not with scientific disputes, but with the fist. So I ate gooseberries to show that his life after this would be sour.”

Who takes part in the communicative act?

Participants in a communicative act may differ depending on the models, of which there are several. Particular attention should be paid to the following concepts:

• The model developed by Shannon and Weaver includes the source of communication data, the channel, the receiver, and the specific purpose of communication. In doing so, they form a linear model.
• Jacobson's model is functional. The sender and the addressee take part in it. Particular attention in this model is paid to the content of the message and encoding methods.

From this saga it is clear that gestures allow for ambiguity in the interpretation of the message.

Only audible human speech makes it possible to express an opinion as clearly as possible and accurately and adequately perceive it. This advantage of sound speech was pointed out by M.V. Lomonosov, adding that communication with gestures is possible only at close range and only during daylight hours [21].

As we can see, communication occurs through various means. The means of communication refers to how a person realizes the content and goals of communication. There are verbal (speech, verbal) communication and nonverbal (non-verbal).

The means of verbal communication is language, non-verbal - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, intonation, pauses, the system of “eye contact”. This means of communication is less known to us, but it is of great importance. As a rule, in life we ​​use verbal (linguistic) and non-verbal means of communication in unity.

Often, on an unconscious level, we guide our language with gestures and facial expressions so that the words are bright, more sincere and convincing. Sometimes verbal and nonverbal means are used separately from each other, but people understand them and interact with each other thanks to this.

Recently, due to the spread of computer networks and the advent of the Internet, people have begun to talk about virtual communication. People can also communicate using various symbols, objects, etc.

The selection of means of communication depends on the general culture of a person, his knowledge of the psychological mechanisms of communication and the ability to use them.

1. Verbal communication
2. Non-verbal communication
3. virtual communication
4. Indirect communication

Source: Kishkel E.N. Managerial psychology

Language means and type of speech

There are three types of speech in the Russian language. For each of them, it is possible to formulate an approximate set of linguistic means of various levels.

Narration

Narration is one of three types of speech in Russian

These are lexical units representing the thematic groups “Action”, “Place”, “Objects” and others, words for conveying the sequence of events (now, first, then, etc.).

As well as morphological means: verbs of perception, actions, movements, different forms of verbs, nouns.

And finally, syntactic units: constructions reflecting the development of events, sequence.

Description

Another type of speech is reasoning

These are lexical units: tropes, vocabulary of various thematic groups, denoting the names of objects, phraseological units.

Morphological means: all parts of speech are represented, but nouns and adjectives play a special role; verbs in descriptive texts are in the same hour form.

As well as syntactic units: constructions that allow enumeration (sentences with homogeneous members, complex sentences), constructions with a parallel type of connection.

Reasoning

1. Lexical means: the main feature is the abundance of abstract words.
2. Morphological units: introductory modal words, conjunctions that allow you to form a reasoning, an explanation (since, because, in this way).
3. Syntactic means: complex sentences expressing cause-and-effect relationships.

These sets take into account only the most remarkable linguistic units of speech types, but this does not mean that other means are not used. The lists can and should be expanded, the main thing is to do it correctly.

The structure of speech (verbal) communication is:

1. Meaning and meaning of words, phrases. An important role is played by the accuracy of the use of the word, its accessibility and expressiveness. Phrases must be constructed correctly and be intelligible to the listener. Sounds and words must be pronounced correctly; intonation should be expressive and correspond to the meaning of what was said.
2. Speech sound phenomena: speech rate (fast, medium, slow); voice pitch modulation (smooth, sharp); voice tone (high, low); rhythm of speech (uniform, intermittent); voice timbre (rolling, hoarse, creaky); intonation, diction of speech. Observations show that the most attractive in communication is calm, smooth, even speech.
3. Expressive voice qualities. These include characteristic specific sounds that arise during communication: laughter, chuckles, sighs, whispers, crying; separating sounds - coughing, sneezing; zero sounds - pauses; sounds of nasalization - “uh-uh”, “hmm-hmm”, etc.

However, words, sounds and intonations in a person’s daily communication account for (according to research) only 45%, and the remaining 55% comes from non-speech interaction.

Nonverbal means of communication are studied by various sciences:

1. Kinestics - studies the external manifestations of human feelings and emotions, which include: facial expressions (studies the movement of facial muscles); gestures (studies gestural movements of individual parts of the body); pantomime (studies the motor skills of the whole body - posture, posture, gait, bows);
2. Takesika - studies touch in a communication situation (handshakes, kisses, touching, stroking, pushing, etc.);
3. Proxemics - studies the location of people in space when communicating.

In human contact, the following distance zones : 1. Intimate zone (15-45 cm from each other), close, well-known people are allowed into it. This zone is characterized by trust, a quiet voice in communication, and touch. Premature intrusion into the intimate area of ​​strangers during communication is perceived by the interlocutor as an attack on his integrity. Research shows that a violation of the intimate zone entails some physiological changes in the human body: the heart beats faster, the secretion of adrenaline increases, there is a rush of blood to the head, etc. Recently, many publications have appeared on the effects of the biofields of all living things on people, including number of people on top of each other. However, much about such effects is not proven by science; 2. Personal or personal zone (42-120 cm) - for casual conversation with friends and colleagues, involving only visual contact between partners and participants in the conversation; 3. Social zone (120-400 cm) - usually observed during official meetings in offices, office premises, as a rule, with those who are not known well enough; 4. Public zone (over 400 cm) - must be observed when communicating with a large group of people: in a lecture hall, at rallies, etc.

Facial expressions are the movement of facial muscles that reflect a person’s internal emotional state. It can give true information about what a person is experiencing. Facial expressions carry up to 70% of information about a person. A person's eyes, gaze, and face can tell more than spoken words. So, for example, a person trying to hide information (or giving false information) tries to turn away and not meet the eyes of the interlocutor. It is noticed that in such cases he looks directly into his partner’s eyes for less than 1/3 of the conversation time.

According to its specificity, the gaze can be: businesslike (fixed in the forehead area of ​​the interlocutor); secular (the gaze drops below the level of the interlocutor’s eyes, to the level of his lips) contributes to the creation of relaxed social communication; intimate (the gaze is directed not at the interlocutor’s eyes, but at other parts of the body up to chest level) indicates the interlocutor’s greater interest in communication; a sideways glance indicates a critical or suspicious attitude towards the interlocutor.

Individual parts of the body - forehead, eyebrows, mouth, nose, eyes, chin - express the basic emotions of a person: suffering, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, joy, happiness, etc. Positive emotions are easier to recognize than negative ones. The main cognitive load in determining a person’s true feelings is carried by eyebrows and lips. It has been proven that the left side of the face more often reveals a person’s emotions, since the right hemisphere of the brain, which controls a person’s emotional life, is responsible for the left side of the face. Positive emotions are reflected on both halves of the face more or less evenly, while negative emotions are more pronounced on the left.

Gestures in communication carry a lot of information. In sign language, just like in speech, there are words and sentences. The huge variety of gestures can be divided into five groups:

1. Illustrative gestures (message gestures) - pointing, depicting a picture using hands and body movements, go-ahead gestures; hand movements connecting imaginary objects together.
2. Regulatory gestures (gestures expressing the speaker’s attitude towards something) - smile, nod, direction of gaze, purposeful movements of the hands.
3. Emblem gestures (substitutes for words or phrases in communication), for example, hands clenched together in the manner of a handshake at chest level mean “hello,” and hands clenched and raised above the head mean “goodbye.”
4. Adapter gestures (hand movements associated with human habits) - scratching, twitching, touching, stroking, fiddling with objects at hand.
5. Affector gestures (gestures expressing certain emotions through the movement of the body and facial muscles) - a hunched figure with a sluggish, stumbling gait, face down; flying gait with head held high, etc.

There are also many microgestures: blushing of the cheeks, movement of the eyes, twitching of the lips, increasing the number of eye blinks per minute.

Most often when communicating, the following types of gestures appear, belonging to different groups :

1. assessment gestures (scratching the chin, extending the index finger along the cheek, standing up, walking, etc.);
2. gestures of confidence (swinging on a chair, connecting your fingers into a pyramid dome);
3. gestures of nervousness and uncertainty (tapping fingers on the table, interlocking fingers, stooping);
4. gestures of denial (arms folded on the chest, body tilted back);
5. positioning gestures (putting a hand to the chest, intermittently touching the interlocutor);
6. gestures of dominance (exposing thumbs, sharp strokes from top to bottom, long gaze into the eyes of the interlocutor);
7. gestures of insincerity (running glance, turning the body away from the interlocutor, touching the nose as a disguised form of covering the mouth, etc.).

The ability to notice, understand and interpret people’s gestures, as well as draw appropriate conclusions, allows you to better understand people and navigate the external environment.

Text of the book “Social Psychology”

Lecture 8

Communication means

…

1. The concept of a means of communication

2. Types of non-verbal means of communication

1. The concept of a means of communication

Means of communication are understood as the operations by which each participant constructs his communication actions and contributes to the interaction with another person. The following means are used to communicate: speech

means of communication (or verbal - translated from Latin - oral, verbal) and
non-verbal
(or non-verbal).

Verbal means of communication

To transmit a message, any information must be appropriately encoded, i.e. communication is possible only through the use of sign systems. Verbal communication uses human speech as such. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when transmitting information through speech, the meaning of the message is least lost if communication partners use the same sign system, that is, they speak the same language.

In verbal communication, the main technique is active listening, which allows you to better understand a person and win him over.

Nonverbal communication

Non-verbal communication

- this is communication between individuals without the use of words, that is, without speech and linguistic means presented in direct or any sign form. The human body, which has an exceptionally wide range of means and methods for transmitting or exchanging information, becomes an instrument of communication. Both consciousness and the unconscious and subconscious components of the human psyche endow him with the ability to perceive and interpret information transmitted in non-verbal form. Research by A. Meyerabian shows that in the daily act of human communication, words make up 7%, sounds and intonations 38%, and other non-speech interaction 53%[5]. Thus, most information is transmitted through non-verbal means of communication, which are necessary in order to:

1) create and maintain psychological contact, regulate the flow of the communication process;

2) give new semantic shades to the verbal text, direct the interpretation of words in the right direction;

3) express emotions of assessment, the accepted role, the meaning of the situation.

The main means that “body language” has are posture, movements (gestures), facial expressions, gaze, “spatial command”, and voice characteristics. In recent decades, interest in nonverbal methods of communication in world psychological science has increased markedly, as it has become clear that this component of human social behavior plays a more important role in the life of society than previously thought. Knowledge of the features of nonverbal communication allows you to adequately “read” facial expressions, posture, gestures, breathing, voice, eye position, which contributes to interpersonal interaction and solving problem situations. There are a lot of nonverbal signs of communication, some of them are done intentionally, others almost intentionally, and others unconsciously.

It has been established that nonverbal methods of communication have two sources of origin: biological evolution and culture. As is known, for animals, what we call non-verbal methods of communication are the main instinctively determined condition for survival and the only tool for social communication. In the animal world, postures, movements, and sounds convey information about danger, the proximity of prey, the onset of mating season, etc. The same means express their attitude towards each other in specific situations. Man has retained much of his animal past in his arsenal of behavior. This is clearly manifested in the similarity of external signs of some emotional reactions of an animal and a person to certain situations (manifestations of alertness, fear, panic, joy, etc.). The evolutionary origin of many components of nonverbal communication and behavior is also evidenced by the fact that the same emotional reactions and states in different cultures are expressed in the same ways and means.

At the same time, it is well known that the symbolic meaning of movements, postures, gestures and even glances in different cultures has different, sometimes directly opposite meanings. Nodding the head means “yes” for Russians, and “no” for Bulgarians; a European and an American, reporting about the grief or misfortune that has befallen them, take on a mournful expression and expect that the interlocutor will do the same, and a Vietnamese in a similar situation will smile, because he does not want to impose his grief on the interlocutor and saves him from feigned expression emotions; It is very difficult for Arabs to communicate without constant direct eye contact, more intense than that of Europeans or Americans, and the Japanese are raised from childhood to look at the interlocutor not in the eyes, but in the neck area, etc. This kind of observation and special research speaks about the cultural context of many forms of nonverbal communication and behavior.

Among the unclear issues in terms of the formation of means of nonverbal communication remains, in particular, the question of how people acquire nonverbal communication skills. Much can be explained, of course, by imitation and observation of the behavior of others. But how, for example, can we explain the acquisition by an individual of a more or less complex system of gestures with which he accompanies his speech? The mystery lies in the fact that in most cases the person himself cannot say: why he uses this or that gesture at some point in the conversation, what the meaning of this gesture is, why it is needed and where it came from, etc.

2. Types of non-verbal means of communication

The effectiveness of communication is determined not only by the degree of understanding of the interlocutor’s words, but also by the ability to correctly assess the behavior of the participants in communication, their facial expressions, gestures, movements, posture, direction of gaze, i.e. to understand the language of non-verbal communication. This language allows the speaker to more fully express his feelings, shows how much the participants in the dialogue control themselves, and how they really relate to each other.

Nonverbal behavior of a person is semi-functional because:

• creates the image of a communication partner;

• expresses the quality and change in the relationships of communication partners, forms these relationships;

• is an indicator of current mental states of the individual;

• acts as a clarification, changing the understanding of a verbal message, enhancing the emotional intensity of what is said;

• maintains an optimal level of psychological intimacy between communicating;

• acts as an indicator of status-role relationships.

There are various classifications of nonverbal means of communication, due to their richness and versatility. Let us consider the following systematization of nonverbal means of communication, which is based on the identification of four groups:

1) visual;

2) acoustic;

3) tactile;

4) olfactory.

The first group includes those non-verbal means of communication that a person primarily perceives through the organ of vision.

Visual non-verbal communication includes:

• Facial expressions

– this is the facial expression, the position of a person’s head. Facial expressions are one of the main indicators of the speaker’s feelings. It allows you to better understand your communication partner and understand what feelings he is experiencing.

• Kinaesthetic expressions

include: posture; movement of the hands (gestures), head, legs, torso of a person, his gait and posture.

• Eye movement

– direction of gaze, visual contact, frequency and duration of fixation of the other person’s eyes.

• Skin reactions:

redness, paleness.

• Proxemics

– characteristics of interpersonal distance: distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation towards him, personal space. Communication is always spatially organized. One of the first to study the spatial structure of communication was the American anthropologist E. Hall, who introduced the term “proxemics”, the literal translation of which means “proximity”. The proxemic characteristics of communication are directly influenced by cultural and national factors. E. Hall described the norms of approaching a person to a person - distances characteristic of North American culture. These norms are determined by four distances: intimate distance (from 0 to 45 cm) - communication between the closest people; personal (from 45 to 120 cm) – communication with familiar people; social (from 120 to 400 cm) – preferable when communicating with strangers and in official communication; public (from 400 to 750 cm) - when speaking in front of various audiences.

Orientation, expressed by turning the body and toe of the foot in the direction of the partner or away from him, signals the direction of thoughts.

• Aids to communication:

signs of gender, age, race; clothes, hairstyle, cosmetics, jewelry, glasses.

Acoustic nonverbal communication

The following types of nonverbal means of communication are associated with the voice, the characteristics of which create an image of a person, contribute to the recognition of his states, and the identification of mental individuality.

Characteristics of the voice are classified as prosodic and extralinguistic phenomena.

• Prosody

is the general name for such rhythmic and intonation aspects of speech as pitch, volume of voice tone, voice timbre, stress force.

• Extralinguistic system

- this is the inclusion of pauses in speech, as well as various kinds of psychophysiological manifestations of a person: crying, coughing, laughter, sigh, etc.

The flow of speech is regulated by prosodic and extralinguistic means, linguistic means of communication are saved, they complement, mix and anticipate speech utterances, and express emotional states.

Tactile non-verbal communication

Tactile (or tactical) means of communication include dynamic touches in the form of a handshake, patting, kissing, as well as contact with objects. Dynamic touch has been proven to be a biologically necessary form of stimulation, and not just a sentimental detail of human communication. A person’s use of dynamic touch in communication is determined by many factors. Among them, the status of partners, age, gender, and the degree of their acquaintance are of particular importance.

Tactile means of communication, to a greater extent than other non-verbal means, perform in communication the function of an indicator of status-role relationships, a symbol of the degree of closeness of the communicators. Inappropriate use of these means by a person can lead to conflicts in communication.

Olfactory means of communication

combine odors that affect the process and result of communication. They are divided into:

• pleasant and unpleasant odors of the environment;

• natural and artificial human odors.

Tasks for independent work

• While in transport, quietly take a closer look at some person. It is advisable to do this in such a way that the expressed interest in the person remains unnoticed by him. (If this does not work, then perhaps the gaze of the observer is too persistent, direct, which limits the possibilities of communication. Unobtrusively studying another person with your gaze can become a common everyday exercise. Naturally, if the attention bothered the person, you should immediately look away.) Try to imagine what you are studying a face smiling, sad, mocking, angry, scared, full of tenderness, etc. Anyone who cannot imagine this, based on the momentary expression of a real face, probably has difficulty understanding the changes in feelings and moods on the faces of his interlocutors.

• Prepare a speech on the topic: “Comparative analysis of communication in humans and animals.”

Questions for self-study

1. Define the concept of “means of communication”.

2. What types of non-verbal means of communication can be distinguished?

Lecture 9

The concept of a small group. Its types and structure

…

1. Concept and characteristics of a small group

2. History of small group research

3. Typology of small groups

4. Reasons for joining the group

5. Small group structure

1. Concept and characteristics of a small group

What is a small group? The answer to this question seems obvious, until several people want to compare their definitions. Are airplane passengers a group? Shouldn't a group be understood only as a collection of people in which everyone knows each other and feels mutual affection? Or maybe a group is formed only by those people who pursue a common goal and rely on each other?

The small group problem is the most traditional and well-developed problem in social psychology. Most empirical research in social psychology has been conducted on small groups, and there are several reasons for this. Most of a person’s life takes place in small groups: in the family, gaming groups of peers, educational and work groups, neighbors, friendly and friendly communities. It is in small groups that personality is formed and its qualities are revealed, so personality cannot be studied outside the group. Through small groups, connections between the individual and society are realized: the group transforms the impact of society on the individual, the individual influences society more strongly if there is a group behind it. The status of social psychology as a science and its specificity are largely determined by the fact that a small group and the psychological phenomena that arise in it are the central features in defining its subject. Small groups throughout the history of social psychology have been the main object of empirical research, including laboratory experiments. Finally, the problems of the formation and development of small groups, group teaching methods, training and psychocorrectional influences, joint work activities and management of the activities of small groups are traditionally one of the main areas of application of the theory and methods of social psychology in practice.

Interest in the study of small groups arose a long time ago, immediately after the problem of the relationship between society and the individual and, in particular, the question of the relationship between the individual and the environment of its formation began to be discussed. The unification of people from a community, which occurs as a process of isolation and opposition to the external social environment with simultaneous assimilation and unity of the community within, is a universal socio-psychological mechanism through which relations between social groups are realized and reproduced - that is, social relations. From the first days of his life, a person is connected with certain small groups, and not only experiences their influence, but only in them and through them receives the first information about the outside world and subsequently organizes his activities.

A small group is defined as a small-sized association of people in which social relations take the form of direct personal contacts. A small group is not just any contacts between people (for there are always some contacts in an arbitrary random collection of people), but contacts in which certain social connections are realized and which are mediated by joint activities.

The boundaries of a small group are determined by qualitative characteristics, the main of which are contact and integrity. Contact

is the ability of each group member to regularly communicate with each other, perceive and evaluate each other, exchange information, mutual assessments and influences. Integrity is defined as the social and psychological unity of people in a group, allowing them to be perceived as a single whole.

In addition to the qualitative characteristics of a small group, its quantitative indicators are distinguished. The lower limit of the size of a small group is three people, since in a group of two people (dyad) group socio-psychological phenomena occur in a special way. The upper limit of a small group is determined by its qualitative characteristics and usually does not exceed 20–30 people. The optimal size of a small group depends on the nature of the joint activity being performed and is in the range of 5-12 people. In smaller groups, the phenomenon of social satiation is more likely to arise; larger groups more easily break up into smaller ones, in which individuals are connected by closer contacts. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish primary groups, that is, the smallest in size and further indivisible communities, and secondary groups, which formally represent single communities, but include several primary groups.

Thus, a small group is a limited collection of directly interacting people who:

1) relatively regularly and for a long time have face-to-face contact, at a minimum distance, without intermediaries;

2) have a common goal or goals, the implementation of which allows them to satisfy significant individual needs and sustainable interests;

3) participate in the general system of distribution of functions and roles in joint life activities, which presupposes to varying degrees a pronounced cooperative interdependence of the participants, manifested both in the final product of joint activity and in the process of its production itself;

4) share common norms and rules of intra- and inter-group behavior, which contributes to the consolidation of intra-group activity and coordination of actions in relation to the environment;

5) evaluate the benefits of association as superior to the costs and greater than they could get in other available groups, and therefore feel a sense of solidarity with each other and gratitude to the group;

6) have a clear and differentiated (individualized) understanding of each other;

7) are connected by fairly definite and stable emotional relationships;

present themselves as members of the same group and are perceived similarly from the outside.

2. History of small group research

The study by the American psychologist N. Triplett (1887) of the effectiveness of individual action performed alone and in a group is considered to be the first experimental study in social psychology. Several decades passed before the experimental (more broadly, empirical) direction of research received further development in foreign special psychology. In the 20s of the XX century. The desire for empirical research intensified, and an empirical boom began in the social sciences, especially in psychology and sociology. Dissatisfaction with speculative schemes contributed to the search for objective factors. Two major works of those years (in Germany by V. Mead and in the USA by F. Allport) largely continued the line of research begun by N. Tripplett.

F. Allport formulated a very unique understanding of a group as “a set of ideals, ideas and habits that are repeated in each individual consciousness and exist only in these consciousnesses.” F. Allport explained the refusal to consider the group as a definite reality by the lack of adequate research methods, which was consistent with his positivist principles.

In the process of accumulating scientific knowledge and developing research methods, the idea of ​​a group as a certain social reality, qualitatively different from the individuals that compose it, became dominant. An important stage in the development of small group psychology abroad, dating back to the period of the 30s and early 40s, was marked by a number of original experimental studies in laboratory conditions and the first serious attempts to develop a theory of group behavior. For example, M. Sherif conducts laboratory experiments to study group norms; T. Newcome explores a similar problem, but in the field; V. White, using the participant observation method, implements a program of “live” groups in the slums of a large city; a “trait theory” of leadership is being developed, etc. During the same period, based on a study of management activities in an industrial organization, Charles Bernard puts forward the idea of ​​a two-dimensional consideration of the group process (from the point of view of solving group problems and from the point of view of maintaining internal balance and cohesion).

A special role in the development of the psychology of small groups belongs to K. Levin, who was the founder of a major scientific direction, widely known as “group dynamics”. Under his leadership, research was carried out by R. Leppitt and R. Walt to study the group atmosphere and leadership styles, changes in standards of group behavior during the discussion process, etc. K. Levin was one of the first to study the phenomenon of social power (influence), intra-group conflicts, dynamics of group life.

The Second World War was a turning point in the development of the psychology of small groups abroad - during this period, a practical need arose to study the patterns of group behavior and effective techniques for managing groups. By the beginning of the 70s, it was possible to distinguish nine major approaches that determined the development of group psychology, such as: sociometric direction, psychoanalytic orientation, general psychological approach through the empirical-statistical direction, formal model approach, reinforcement theory.

In Russia, the study of small groups (or teams) has a long tradition. Some empirical facts of group behavior of people in combat conditions are contained in the publications of a number of participants in the Russian-Japanese War of 1904–1905. The scientific works and practical activities of V.M. played a decisive role in the development of small group psychology in our country. Bekhtereva, A.S. Zaluzhsky.

After the Civil War, the development of collective psychology was characterized by an increased interest of researchers in the problem of leadership. Among the numerous developers of this problem we find the names of such psychologists as P.P. Blonsky and D.B. Elkonin, whose views on some aspects of leadership (typology, roles, mechanisms, dynamics) still attract the attention of specialists today.

The works of A.S., published in the 30-40s. Makarenko marked a fundamentally new stage in the development of the psychological and pedagogical problems of the team. Makarenko’s work implements (albeit in a simplified form) the most important methodological principles of studying a social group: activity, consistency, development. These studies provide a diverse representation of the phenomenology of a small group, organization, structure and management (including management and leadership), normative regulation of behavior, cohesion, psychological climate, motivation for group duration, emotional and business relationships, personality in the dynamics of acquiring qualitative new formations in connection with the development of the groups.

The post-war years are characterized by a predominantly empirical focus of work, active acquaintance with foreign experience in the study of small groups, and a rethinking of domestic experience in the study of small groups and teams. During this period, socio-psychological centers are formed, focused on the problems of small groups and teams operating in the field of production, sports, education, in conditions of particular difficulty and increased risk.

The 1970s constituted the second stage in the development of domestic group psychology. This decade saw the emergence of several major research approaches, among which the stratometric and parametric concepts of the collective gained the greatest popularity and influence. Both rely on a large body of empirical data relating to a wide range of group phenomena. In the 1970s, the very subject of domestic research on small groups underwent a significant expansion, in which, among others, sections related to management activities, intergroup relations, group ecology, socio-psychological training, group cohesion and effectiveness, and psychotherapy appeared.

During the third stage (1980s), the trends in posing and solving methodological issues of group psychology, strengthening and expanding its theoretical foundation continued and intensified. A number of final publications appear on certain problems of group psychology: management and leadership, group integration and effectiveness, socio-psychological training, psychological climate, individual behavior in a group, intra-group and inter-group relations.

An analysis of many years of research in the field of group psychology in our country allows us to identify a number of approaches to the study of the phenomena of a social group that have developed over the past decades and to a large extent influence the development of scientific thought. These are the activity approach, the sociometric direction, the parametric concept and the organizational and managerial approach.

The interactive side of communication

Source: Andreeva I.V., Social psychology

The interactive side of communication is a conventional term denoting the characteristics of the components of communication associated with the interaction of people and the direct organization of their joint activities. The goals of communication reflect the needs of joint activities of people. Communication should always involve some result - a change in the behavior and activities of other people. Here communication acts as interpersonal interaction, i.e. a set of connections and mutual influence of people that develop in their joint activities. Interpersonal interaction is a sequence of people’s reactions to each other’s actions unfolded over time: the action of individual A, which changes the behavior of individual B, causes responses from the latter, which, in turn, affect the behavior of A.

The interactive side of communication examines the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities.

A special direction has emerged in social psychology, where the interactive side of communication is taken as the starting point of any socio-psychological analysis. This direction - symbolic interactionism - is associated with the name of G. Mead.

Clarifying the social nature of the human “I,” Mead came to the conclusion that the formation of the “I” occurs in communication situations, which are understood not as a set of people’s reactions to each other’s opinions, but as a joint activity. In the process of joint activity, a personality is formed, becoming aware of oneself, and not just looking at other people as in a mirror, but acting together with them.

K. Thomas and R. Kilmenn wrote about the possibilities and typology of joint activities, identifying the following five main styles of behavior in a conflict situation:

• adaptation, compliance;
• evasion;
• competition, confrontation;
• cooperation;
• compromise.

The classification was based on two independent parameters:

1. The degree to which one’s own interests are realized and one’s goals are achieved.
2. A measure in which the interests of the other party are taken into account and realized. If we present this in graphical form, we get the Thomas-Kilmann grid (see diagram), which allows us to analyze a specific conflict and choose a rational form of behavior.

Behavior styles

Evasion (avoidance, withdrawal). This form of behavior is chosen when an individual does not want to defend his rights, cooperate to develop a solution, refrains from expressing his position, and avoids arguing. This style suggests a tendency to avoid responsibility for decisions. This behavior is possible if the outcome of the conflict is not particularly important for the individual, or if the situation is too complex and resolving the conflict will require a lot of effort from its participants, or the individual does not have enough power to resolve the conflict in his favor.

Competition (confrontation) is characterized by an individual’s active struggle for his interests, the use of all means available to him to achieve the goals of power, coercion, and other means of putting pressure on opponents, and the use of other participants’ dependence on him. The situation is perceived by the individual as extremely significant for him, as a matter of victory or defeat: a tough position towards opponents and irreconcilable antagonism towards other participants in the conflict are assumed if they resist.

Adaptation (compliance). The actions of an individual are aimed at maintaining or restoring favorable relations with an opponent by smoothing out disagreements at the expense of their own interests. This approach is possible when the individual’s contribution is not too great or when the subject of disagreement is more significant for the opponent than for the individual. This behavior in conflict is used if the situation is not particularly significant, if it is more important to maintain good relations with the opponent than to defend one’s own interests, if the individual has little chance of winning, little power.

Cooperation means that an individual is active in searching for a solution that satisfies all participants in the interaction, but does not forget his own interests. An open exchange of views and the interest of all parties to the conflict in developing a common solution are assumed. This form requires positive work and participation from all parties. If opponents have time, and solving the problem is important for everyone, then with this approach, a comprehensive discussion of the issue, the disagreements that have arisen, and the development of a common solution while respecting the interests of all participants are possible.

In a compromise, the actions of the participants are aimed at finding a solution through mutual concessions, at developing an intermediate solution that suits both parties, in which no one particularly wins, but no one loses either. This style of behavior is applicable provided that the opponents have the same power, have mutually exclusive interests, they do not have a large reserve of time to find a better solution, and they are satisfied with an intermediate solution for a certain period of time.

In competition and cooperation, confrontation is a necessary condition for developing a solution. Considering that when resolving a conflict, it is assumed that the causes that gave rise to it are eliminated, we can conclude: only a style of cooperation will help to fully realize this task. When avoiding and adapting, the resolution of the conflict is postponed, and the conflict itself becomes hidden. Compromise can only bring a partial resolution of conflict interaction, since a fairly large area of ​​mutual concessions remains, and the causes have not been completely eliminated.

In some cases, it is believed that confrontation within reasonable, controlled limits is more productive in terms of conflict resolution than smoothing, avoidance, and even compromise, although not all experts adhere to this statement. At the same time, the question arises about the cost of victory and what constitutes defeat for the other side. These are extremely difficult issues in conflict management, since it is important that defeat does not become the basis for the formation of new conflicts and does not lead to an expansion of the zone of conflict interaction.

The ideal strategy is to finally resolve the conflict, the essence of which is to find and eliminate its causes within the framework of voluntary cooperation of the parties. This strategy benefits everyone. First, it turns opponents into partners. Secondly, the problem is not driven deeper, but ceases to exist altogether. Third, the benefits gained by the parties exceed those that could be obtained with any other strategy. This strategy is based on treating conflict as a normal phenomenon.

Structure of a communicative act

Regardless of the conditions and on what issue communication occurs, it includes a number of components. The structure of a communicative act can be described as follows:

1. A message is a conscious or accidental signal that will cause a certain reaction from the addressee. As practice shows, the bulk of messages are not only conscious, but also thought out and carefully prepared. Not only speech may occur, but also grimaces, interjections and gestures.
2. Coding is a process carried out by the sender of a message, which involves the use of a system of signs that allows one to designate and consolidate the content. It must be understandable and acceptable for all participants in the communicative act. The information transmission channel is also taken into account.
3. Decoding is the process of the listener perceiving signs and giving them a certain meaning. In this case, during the decoding process, the content of the message may be distorted, even if it has not been subjected to any negative influences.
4. Data transmission channel is a system of methods and means through which the sender of a message transmits it to the addressee. In this case, we can talk about both direct communication and the use of modern data transportation technologies.
5. Communication noise or barriers are obstacles that interfere with the transmission of information or its correct interpretation by the recipient.

Language is considered the main means of human communication.

The purpose of language to be a mechanism of communication is called its communicative function. By interacting with each other, individuals transmit their own thoughts, worldviews, emotions and emotional disturbances, mutually influence each other in a certain direction, and achieve a common understanding. With the help of language, subjects of interpersonal interaction understand each other. It gives them the opportunity to establish collective work in all areas of human activity. Language is the force that determines the existence and development of individuals and society as a whole. And the communicative function is the leading social function of language. However, it is far from its only function. Its specialized functions include cognitive, expressive, nominative and accumulative.

The ability to express information, broadcast it and influence the interlocutor is called the expressive function of language. This function is considered as the unity of expression and transmission of data, feelings and emotional experiences, and the will of the speaker.

The cognitive function is interconnected with the presence of human consciousness in linguistic signs. Language is a unique instrument of consciousness that reflects the results of a person’s cognitive activity. Linguistic disputes about what comes first, mental activity or language, will probably never stop. The only correct judgment is the statement that language has an inextricable connection with thinking, since humanity not only expresses its own thoughts in words, but also thoughts are formulated in the form of words - a person thinks in words. The cognitive function of the psyche is intended to record the consequences of mental activity and apply them in communication. This function promotes knowledge of the world and its verbalization.

A person thinks using categories, and in the course of cognition, he discovers and names new phenomena and concepts for himself, which is the nominative function of language. It has a close connection with the cognitive, since everything known must necessarily have its own name. It also has a connection with the ability of linguistic signs to designate things. It is this ability that allows an individual to create a world of symbols. However, in the modern world there are many things that do not have names.

The accumulative function is closely related to the collection and storage of information. After all, it is no secret to anyone that language has existed much longer than people and people. A striking example of this is dead languages ​​that outlive their speakers. Language, regardless of whether it exists today or not, preserves the memory of generations and the centuries-old history of mankind. After all, even with the loss of oral speech, it is possible to master ancient writings and draw certain conclusions about the past life of a nation.

Language can also be spoken and written. The leading form of a language is its sound component. Unwritten languages ​​may also exist. When there is only written recording, and no voicing, then the language becomes dead.

Nonverbal communication

Our body language, compared to other verbal (speech) means of communication, is unique. If you imagine that it is he who carries from 60 to 80 percent of the information transmitted to the interlocutor, it is easy to understand the need to interpret this method of contact. If we want to be sure that we accurately understand a person, we must combine information from the body and verbal expressions into one overall picture.

Who among us has not encountered a feeling of vague anxiety when communicating with a person when he claimed one thing, but subconsciously you felt his falsehood. You will say that this is intuition and good for those who have it. In fact, it is easy to develop intuition by observing your interlocutor and, knowing the specific meaning of gestures, draw the right conclusions.

Language means of expression

Linguistic means of expressiveness serve for a vivid, lively transmission of thoughts, reasoning, and impressions of a particular person. A synonym for this concept is paths:

• metaphor (synecdoche, metonymy) – transfer of features from one object to another based on similarity (golden autumn, silk grass);
• comparison turnover likening objects (the sky is like the sea);
• epithet - artistic definition (violent wind, fluffy cloud);
• hyperbole - exaggeration (had the power of 33 heroes);
• litota – understatement (a boy as big as a fingernail);
• oxymoron – combination of incompatible things (living corpse).

Example of nonverbal communication

At one university, an experiment was conducted in psychology classes. The audience, which consisted of married couples, was divided into two groups by gender and was given video recordings of different versions of babies crying. Then they were asked to explain their meaning. Most women who had children accurately deciphered them (hunger, wet diapers, pain, etc.), while men did not see much difference in the crying options. This led to the conclusion that women, being more sensitive and observant, interpret non-verbal gestures more easily. It’s more difficult for men to do this; they need specifics, and not all sorts of sentimental experiences. Of course, there are exceptions.

This case also explains why it can be difficult for the stronger sex to tell a lie to his wife, who seems to read the real state of affairs in her eyes.

So, let's look at nonverbal means of communication.

To clearly understand their diverse structure, we present their classification:

1. Expressive movements (body posture, facial expressions, gestures, gait).
2. Tactile movements (handshake, pat on the back or shoulder, touching, kissing).
3. The gaze is visually contact (direction of gaze, its duration, frequency of contact).
4. Spatial movements (orientation, distance, placement at the table).

In this part of the article, we will dwell in detail on the first two groups of means of nonverbal communication and try to characterize their meaning. It should be remembered that interpreting a single gesture without the totality of other body signals means misleading yourself. Therefore, before drawing specific conclusions, you need to take into account all the nuances of the interlocutor’s behavior, as well as his physical and psychological state.

Openness

The interlocutor's hands are turned palms up and spread wide to the sides. The head is straight, the shoulders are straightened. The look is direct. The facial expression is natural, without tension or stiffness. This pose of friendliness, as a means of non-verbal communication, speaks of openness and sincerity. It is also indicated by shaking hands and clasping them with both hands. Men may unbutton their shirt or jacket while talking. When communicating with such a person, you involuntarily relax and feel trust in him.

Sympathy

In nonverbal communication, there is the concept of mental contact, which is expressed in the involuntary copying of each other’s gestures or entire behavior. A signal is sent to each other: “I understand you perfectly.” And indeed, if you take a look at a couple peacefully talking at a table, you will see similar poses, the same placement of hands, even mirroring. If you want to convince another person to unconditionally share his opinion, simply copy his body position.

If you observe the gait of a happy man in love, we will notice a flying gait, which is very noticeable. It is also typical for self-confident, energetic people. It seems that they don’t care about all the problems.

Deception

Have you probably seen someone hiding their hands during a conversation? It is likely that he is telling a lie, since the person’s brain subconsciously sends signals to the body and when a lie is told, a strong desire arises to put his hands in his pocket, scratch his nose, and rub his eyes. All these typical signs must be explained together to explain the meaning of nonverbal gestures. A person suffering from a runny nose can scratch their nose, a child who has just woken up can rub their eyes, etc.

Defense

Arms crossed on the chest, legs crossed in standing and sitting positions - a classic gesture of closedness and inaccessibility. Frequent blinking is a sign of protection and confusion. A person’s emotional status does not allow him to feel free and at ease. If you try to negotiate something with such an interlocutor, it is likely that you will receive a refusal.

Concentration

Expressed in pinching the bridge of the nose with closed eyes. When the person you are communicating with is deciding what to do or what to do, or generally thinking about solving a certain issue, he may be rubbing his chin at this time.

Criticality

If a person holds his hand to his chin, with his index finger stretched along his cheek, and with the other hand supports his elbow, his left eyebrow is lowered - you will understand that he has a negative assessment of what is happening.

Positivity

Interpreted as a slight tilt of the head forward and a light touch of the hand to the cheek. The body is tilted forward. Here is a person who is interested in what is happening and has a positive attitude towards information.

Mistrust

Have you probably noticed how some students cover their mouths with their palms while listening to a speaker? This gesture indicates disagreement with the lecturer's opinion. They seem to hold back their statements, suppress true feelings and experiences. If during a conversation your friend unexpectedly made a gesture of distrust, stop and think about what words caused such a reaction? By observing the behavior of the boss, the subordinate will understand what needs to be said and what it is better to remain silent about. Distrust quickly turns into rejection and then into refusal.

Uncertainty

A nonverbal gesture such as scratching or rubbing the back of the ear or neck may indicate that the person does not fully understand what you want from him or what you mean in the conversation. How to interpret such a gesture if you were told of complete understanding? Here preference should be given to the non-verbal body signal. In this case, the person did not understand anything. A hand clasping another’s elbow from behind also speaks of uncertainty; its owner is probably in unfamiliar company.

Boredom

The interlocutor props his head with his hand. It is clear that he is indifferent to what is happening. If he is sitting in the audience, we can say with confidence: the material presented by the lecturer is completely uninteresting.

Disapproval

Shaking off non-existent lint, straightening the folds of clothing, tugging at your skirt in non-verbal communication is a sign of your opponent’s disagreement with the point of view being expressed. You will quickly realize the need to switch to neutral topics. However, if a thread actually sticks to the sleeve of a jacket, or the clothing is wrinkled, this should not be regarded as a gesture of disapproval.

Reasons for failed communications

It is not enough to study the components of a communicative act. It is important to learn how to manipulate them correctly. Poor communication often leads to communication failures. The following main reasons for this negative phenomenon can be identified:

1. An inappropriate communication environment that negates all the efforts of the interlocutors to establish contact and qualitatively perceive information. This usually happens when outsiders, voluntarily or unwittingly, take part in a communicative act. Also, the reason may be the insufficient “degree of acquaintance” of the interlocutors, which prevents the establishment of contact.
2. Violation of parity in communication, as well as disregard for the rules of cooperation or solidarity of interlocutors. Most often, the reason is the desire of one of the participants to dominate over the others. This starts with choosing a topic and continues with constant interrupting questions. Ultimately, the dialogue turns into a monologue. At the same time, an important role in the behavior of the “leader” is played by his social status, excessive emotionality or low cultural skills.
3. Ritualization of live speech communication. This means that all remarks are pragmatic and strictly follow patterns and ethical standards. With such communication, it is difficult to convey your thoughts and understand your interlocutor. It is quite natural that an atmosphere of misunderstanding and understatement arises.
4. Inappropriate comments of a personal nature. Often, the speaker’s inability to evoke sympathy and understanding on the part of his interlocutor prompts him to touch on unacceptable topics and criticize the personal qualities of his opponents.
5. Unjustified expectations of the listener. Due to sociocultural stereotypes, certain beliefs, psychological barriers and other factors, the listener may not understand what the speaker wants to convey. The reason may also be the speaker’s inability to correctly formulate and convey his thoughts.