- The idea of psychoanalysis.
- Free associations.
- Interpretation of dreams.
- Interpretation, resistance and transference.
- Stages of psychoanalysis.
This article does not pretend to be an exhaustive presentation of the topic and is intended for students studying psychology as part of retraining, on the basis of primary higher education, as well as for those who are only interested in the ideas of psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis, as a psychological practice of working with a client, is based on the ideas of its founding father, Sigmund Freud. Details about the origin of the method, as well as about the personality theory that formed the basis of psychoanalysis, are written in the relevant articles. Therefore, for a comprehensive understanding of this article, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the previous ones.
What is the idea of psychoanalysis based on?
According to Freud, due to the contradiction between different personality structures, inevitable tension arises, which manifests itself in the form of neurotic states, neurotic behavior and/or mental disorders. The main contradiction, within the framework of such a personality structure, can be seen between natural desires (and the ID aspirations arising from them) and the Super Ego, which limits these aspirations. What happens then?
The natural aspirations of the individual come into conflict with social and personal attitudes, the source of which is perfectly understood by the EGO (I), in contrast to the former (ID), located in the subconscious. The natural urges of the ID in most cases (but not always) are considered by the EGO as unacceptable and threatening to the ideals of the Super Ego, and at the same time to social norms.
*These statements do not fully apply to societies where ID desires are considered socially acceptable and natural, this, in part, concerns the situation in so-called primitive communities.
The Ego's task is to reduce psychological tension (neurosis) without conflicting with personal ideals and morals. In cases where this cannot be done directly, through the satisfaction of these desires, then the frustrations from failure to fulfill problematic aspirations are partly leveled out by psychological defenses.
According to Freud, unsatisfied impulses are mostly suppressed and repressed into the area of the unconscious, where, nevertheless, they continue to exist in a form not recognized by the individual. Repressed aspirations manifest themselves in the form of psychological tension (neurosis), which naturally causes suffering to the individual.
As a result of his work with patients suffering from neuroses, Freud found out that some relief was brought by the fact of remembering and recognizing traumatic contents when, for one reason or another, they surfaced (remembered) from the subconscious. But for this therapeutic effect to occur, several conditions were required.
First, it was necessary to remember the circumstances of the development of the traumatic situation, and secondly, it was necessary to realize its original meaning.
One of Freud's postulates says that repressed material always strives to return to consciousness, however, it is blocked by psychological defenses. It was these blockages that were a problem because they interfered with memories. In addition, even if the contents of the subconscious were manifested in the patient’s consciousness, it was by no means in an explicit form, but more often in a veiled, coded form, in the form of certain symbols.
Methods of “extracting” memories of traumatic events from the unconscious and their subsequent interpretation are one of the main methods of psychoanalysis; this process takes quite a long time. In classical Freudian psychoanalysis, the following material is used, the source of which is the analysand (client) - free associations, transference, dreams and their interpretations, slips of the tongue, forgetting, analysis of resistance, as well as the method of interpretation.
What it is?
Translated from Latin, the word interpretatio means explanation, interpretation).
This definition of the term gives us an explanatory philosophical dictionary. In humanitarian knowledge, it is used in a meaning close to the word “understanding”
Synonyms for interpretation:
- interpretation;
- a comment;
- clarification of meaning;
- transcript.
Perceiving information from the environment, each person analyzes it in his own way. Of course, there are ideas and concepts that are common to everyone, but since all people have individual thinking, the same phenomena are interpreted differently.
Often this process occurs unconsciously (at the level of sensations, moral norms, rules of behavior laid down in childhood, and worldview). When a person uses his knowledge to decipher any data, the interpretation is directional in nature (for example, translations of texts from foreign or complex scientific languages into a native or easier to understand language).
You can interpret anything: information, events, dreams, laws, musical and literary works, films and even analyses.
Free association method
The essence of the method is that the patient tells the psychotherapist everything that currently comes to his mind, without caring at all about the content of his verbal flow, even if it is completely unacceptable for the patient himself. The initial concept (topic) can be anything - an object, numbers, image, word, etc., or the absence of any topic at all.
How is it that repressed material can nevertheless emerge into consciousness? When using the method of free association (when the elements of the output material are not rationally connected), the controlling function of consciousness is partially blocked, which means that psychological defenses do not work as effectively, which allows the repressed material to break out, in an explicit, and more often, encrypted form.
When conducting such a session, which usually lasts about an hour, the patient lies relaxed on the couch and does not see the psychoanalyst, this is important because the more relaxed the patient is, the less resistance to therapy on his part.
An incoherent monologue of a client, in the company of an analyst observing him, provides the most valuable material for subsequent work, because no matter how absurd this stream of words may seem, all the same, our thinking initially moves in the direction of concepts that are significant to us, which, sooner or later, make themselves known know. When researching, the following facts are important: the content of the client’s statements and their sequence. Of particular importance is the material that causes difficulties or internal resistance.
The subsequent identification of significant material and its interpretation is an important task for the psychoanalyst, since the reliability of this interpretation determines the success of the entire therapy as a whole.
Main tasks
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- introduce the employee into the work process in the shortest possible time}
- reduce the number of production errors made by a newcomer during the period of mastering professional responsibilities}
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- reduce staff turnover as much as possible by reducing the number of employees who did not complete the probationary period or did not complete the internship}
- increase labor productivity of the entire enterprise as a whole.
Dream interpretation
The idea behind dream work is that dreams, even more than free association, are a source of subconscious material.
The more traumatic the information, the better it is protected and encrypted and, accordingly, the greater its value for the client.
Sometimes dreams tell us about our aspirations in a very obvious way, usually this happens in cases where what we want is not forbidden from the point of view of morals and ideals. In most cases, the content of the dream must be interpreted, and it expresses our secret aspirations and repressed, unacceptable material in symbolic form.
The task of interpreting dreams is very complex and requires a lot of experience and intuition from the psychologist, because some symbols may have special meaning for the patient, while others, despite their apparent significance, do not. For this reason, even generally accepted values often require careful verification through work with the client.
What is interpreted in psychology
This concept also has its meaning in psychology.
If you give a person the opportunity to explain the meaning of his experiences, you can interpret the problem simultaneously from the conscious and unconscious. Sometimes people become hostage to their stereotypes, because of which they cannot see the forest for the trees.
Many psychologists work with drawings and tests. Based on the results obtained, conclusions are drawn about the patient’s mental health state.
Attention is paid to details, which are drawn differently for each client.
Dream interpretation is a rather complex method that belongs to the field of social psychoanalysis. To correctly interpret the meanings of sleep, the help of a specialist is necessary. Its decoding allows us to expand our understanding of the sphere of unconscious perception of the surrounding world.
Interpretation method
As mentioned earlier, interpretation is the most important tool of a psychoanalyst when working with free associations and dreams. After all, it is one thing to receive material, and quite another to interpret it correctly. During interpretation, the received unconscious material is rationalized—awareness, together with the client, of the true causes of neurotic symptoms, as well as the true meaning of the client’s aspirations. It is the interpretation that can lead to a therapeutic result, naturally, only if it is interpreted correctly.
Brief summary
The importance of interpretation for each of us is difficult to overestimate. Every person should understand that their correct interpretation makes it possible to successfully communicate with others
Every person should understand that their correct interpretation makes it possible to successfully communicate with others.
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Transfer Analysis
In psychoanalysis, the analyst takes a position of some kind of closedness and detachment from the client. This leads to the fact that he is most often perceived by the client as an abstract symbolic figure. It is believed that it is for this reason that the so-called transference occurs, which means that the client unconsciously endows the psychologist with the traits of a personality that is significant to him, transferring his emotional attitude towards this personality to the figure of the analyst. It is as if the empty contents are being filled with new meanings. These could be, for example, traits of the father or mother (depending on the analyst's gender) or traits of another significant figure. Through subsequent analysis of the emerging phantom relationships between the client and the image of a significant person, aspects of the traumatic experiences received (most often in childhood) are revealed.
Square
The main character trait of those who chose the square is hard work combined with organization, perseverance, patience and firmness, as well as punctuality, cleanliness and practicality. The choice of a square as the main figure may indicate a penchant for analytical thinking and rationality. Such a person strives to do all his affairs as well and efficiently as possible. And since he knows how to manage himself and organize others, he can occupy leadership positions.
The Square person is distinguished by conservatism, strict adherence to rules and regulations, and a lack of spontaneity and creativity. Strives to organize and systematize everything around him - space, things, any information with which he works. He likes it when information is presented in accordance with strict logic. The person who chose the square likes the speech to be replete with facts, figures and theses, preferably with links to the source from which it was taken. Prefers order, a planned life. He is picky about his acquaintances and does not like noisy parties. In conflicts, he often avoids direct confrontation. This is a good administrator and performer. Loses in efficiency of actions, contact with different people.
Women who choose a square are organized, punctual, picky, and attentive to details. They are patient, hardworking, persistent in achieving goals, firm in decisions and inclined to strictly follow rules and instructions. They don't like to stand out.
Square people usually speak quietly, preferring not to raise their voice unnecessarily. And they do not tolerate raised voices from others either. At the same time, their speech is distinguished by clarity, accuracy, logic and thoroughness. It tends to be somewhat monotonous and “mechanical.” They are characterized by the use of speech cliches.
Pedantry, scrupulousness and consistency are also evident in the choice of clothing. These people prefer a strict, classic style, restrained, soft colors. They are neat and lean. The reluctance to stand out is also manifested in gestures that are stingy and inexpressive.
Stages of psychoanalysis
To summarize, consider the sequence of work between an analyst and a client, which consists of several conventional stages.
The first stage is to search for a traumatic event in the client’s past. This is working with dreams, making reservations, using the method of free association, and conducting conversations.
The second stage is very conditional, it begins from the moment when the trauma is discovered and identified by the client himself as a traumatic experience. The client expresses himself through experiencing the newly discovered event, as well as rationalizing it, that is, understanding how exactly it led to the problems. This is a very painful stage; it is at this stage that what we called above transference or projection is formed. Most often this is expressed in a rather negative attitude towards the analyst on the part of the patient.
The third stage is expressed in a revaluation of traumatic events and a reduction in their significance, up to indifference and an indifferent attitude. At this stage, it is important to understand that the visible result is not just another defense or an imitation of the client’s calm attitude towards the problem.
Of course, the boundaries of all these stages are very arbitrary. This is due to the fact that problems do not come one at a time and a visible solution to one of them does not at all mean the end of the work, which can continue simultaneously at several stages.
The meaning and origin of hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is one of the areas of philosophy that deals with the analysis of the conditions of understanding. Hermeneutic philosophers examine, for example, how our cultural traditions, history, language, and nature influence interpretation [OUPblog, 2017].
Hermeneutics, as a methodology of interpretation, deals with problems that arise when dealing with meaningful human actions and the products of such actions, especially texts [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016]. In short, hermeneutics describes the interpretation of meanings - explanation, analysis, commentary.
Originally applied to biblical interpretation, it included reliable readings plus exegesis (commentary on how one should apply one's knowledge). In the 19th century, hermeneutics came to be seen as a general theory of interpretation relevant to texts of any description.
The history of the term “hermeneutics” (from the Greek verb hermeneueuein - to interpret) dates back to ancient philosophy. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato used the word when referring to poets as “hermeneutics of the divine,” and his student Aristotle wrote the first extant treatise on hermeneutics, in which he showed how spoken and written words can be an expression of inner thoughts [OUPblog, 2017].
Philosopher David Hoy traced the term's origins to the Greek god Hermes, who was, among other things, the inventor of language and a translator between the gods and humanity.
In fact, the basic problems that hermeneutics was designed to solve dominated human life and repeatedly and consistently demanded consideration. It originally arose as a response to debates about the interpretation of biblical scriptures.
Representatives of the Roman Catholic Church believed that the true meaning of biblical texts can only be viewed through the prism of tradition. The Reformers, on the contrary, believed that some version of the true meaning of these biblical texts could be obtained from modern, ordinary readers, many of whom were not familiar with the basic canons of the Catholic Church.
Shortly thereafter, the German philosopher Friedrich Ast proposed a new view of hermeneutics. He believed that it was more than just an interpretation of biblical texts. According to Ast, hermeneutics involved attempting to recreate, to the greatest extent possible, the author's original intent through textual analysis, without being limited by the lenses of historical or religious tradition or contemporary culture (Literary Theory and Criticism, 2016).
In the field of qualitative research, the term hermeneutics still means interpretation. Interpretation is a ubiquitous activity that occurs whenever people seek to understand information that is meaningful to them. However, its depth and type and object have changed throughout history [Literary Theory and Criticism, 2016].
Today, in the field of qualitative methods, the word “hermeneutics” seems interchangeable with the term “phenomenology.” They are closely related, but actually have different meanings. Both phenomenology and hermeneutics are modes of analysis used by researchers to interpret data. These two modes share the underlying assumption that the interpretation of a text or artifact should be approached through different perspectives.
Traditional hermeneutics (including biblical) refers to the history of the interpretation of written texts, especially in the fields of literature, religion, and law.
Modern hermeneutics covers not only issues related to the written text, but also everything related to the process of interpretation. This includes verbal and non-verbal forms of communication, as well as aspects that influence communication, such as assumptions, prior understanding, meaning and philosophy of language, and semiotics [Literary Theory and Criticism, 2016].
In modern times, hermeneutics deals with the interpretation and understanding of human actions through the prism of political, cultural, economic and social institutions. As a methodological discipline, it offers a set of tools for effectively solving problems of interpreting human actions, texts and other significant material [Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016].
Contemporary hermeneutics must also ask how the digital revolution is changing the conditions for understanding texts. For example, text encodings are already an interpretation, and various search parameters present texts through a specific, pre-selected focus [OUPblog, 2017].
Hermeneutic approaches to meaning have been thematized and used in many academic disciplines: archaeology, architecture, environmental studies, international relations, political theory, psychology, religion, and sociology. In particular, philosophical hermeneutics is unique in that, rather than taking a particular approach to meaning, it is concerned with the nature of meaning, understanding, or interpretation.
