Types of transactions
Transactions are divided into true ones - a unit of communication between people, during which co-adjustment and pseudo-transactions (or manipulations) occur. True transactions can be complementary, cross, or hidden.
Complementary transactions
Such a transaction is based on the complementarity of the message and the reaction to it. The Child's reaction complements the Adult's message. The Parent's reaction complements the Child's message. The Adult's response complements the other Adult's message.
An example of the Parent-Parent communication pattern is gossip or small talk. The Adult-Adult communication model can include conversations during the work process or simply exchanging information. The combination of ego states Child-Child is responsible for such manifestations as love or joy from an interesting pastime.
Cross transactions
They arise in a situation where an unexpected reaction follows a communication message. After such a transaction, the communication process temporarily stops, since the subjects of communication do not receive the result they expected. For example, when an Adult asks a question with the intention of getting an answer from the Adult ego state, but receives a reaction from a Child or Parent. After which the struggle begins, which continues until the vectors of transactions are balanced. To solve the problem, one of the parties needs to change their ego state.
Hidden transactions
Characterized by the participation of more than two ego states, while one of them is hidden. This is typical for situations where a person’s behavior does not correspond to what other communication expects from him. For example, when a teacher begins to manifest himself in the ego-state of the Child, while at the external level communication is built from the position of the Parent. In this case, we see the ego-state of the Parent at the level of social communication and the ego-state of the Child in the psychological layer of communication. In such a situation, the result of interaction is determined precisely by the state that is determined by the psychological component of communication.
E. Burn, when studying transactions, made the following conclusions:
- If communication is conditioned by a complementary transaction, then conflict between the participants in communication is excluded.
- With a cross transaction, positional struggle begins.
Text of the book “Social Psychology”
12.2.2. Types of transactions E. Berne identified three main forms of transactions: parallel, intersecting and hidden transactions. In addition, communication involves transactions of “stroking”, “biting” and time structuring.
12.2.2.1. Parallel (complementary) transactions
From the name itself it is clear that parallel transactions are symmetrical and complement each other.
Parallel transaction
–
this is a transaction in which the vectors of interpersonal communication are parallel to each other, and individuals are in the same ego states.
Let us explain this with examples taken mainly from the book by A. Dobrovich, who adapted transactional analysis to our culture.
1st example
.
Peter:
What happened to the young people? They have completely blossomed.
Paul:
Yes, in their years we were more modest.
In this example, the communicative stimulus is sent from the position of the parent, it is addressed to the “parental” position of the partner, who responds accordingly to it.
2nd example
.
Peter:
Aren't you ashamed to sit when an elderly woman is standing next to you?
Paul:
Forgive me, please, I just didn't notice. I thought about it, you know.
Variant response of a rebellious child: “Why are you pestering me? Who are you to reprimand me?
3rd example
.
Peter:
Shouldn't we run away to the cinema after the last lecture?
Paul:
Let's. Just hurry up, otherwise we might be late for the session.
This is an example of a transaction between two children. Notation system: P – parent; In adult;
Often such transactions become fixed. For example, a conversation between two unfamiliar pensioners may be limited to transactions P - R. A business conversation, political negotiations or a diplomatic reception requires a fixed transaction B - C. In a situation of a picnic, disco, chatting between classes, transactions D - D are recorded. The relationship between teacher and student in our culture, transactions are prescribed in positions R - B, and teachers and students R - D. As a rule, between a doctor and a patient there is a V - D relationship, and between husbands and wives a whole variety of relationships are possible: from children's transactions D - D to discussion serious issues of purchasing a car or a house, when a balanced, rational position of both partners B - B is necessary.
12.2.2.2. Overlapping transactions
Overlapping transactions arise when the positions of the communicating individuals are different. For example, you ask your colleague: “What time is it?” He gets up and shouts in irritation: “What time is it!” What time is it now! What are you always asking? Can’t wait until the end of the working day?” This is an inadequate reaction of an irritated parental state to an appeal from a colleague from an adult state. Such overlapping transactions tend to interrupt contact for some time.
Cross Transaction
-
this is a transaction in which the vectors are not parallel to each other, and the ego states to which they are directed are not the source of the response.
Overlapping transactions are the source of numerous conflicts; Often such reactions mean a quarrel between partners and the cessation of interaction. They can be either intentional or unintentional, associated with an incomplete understanding of the partner’s position. But most often they arise as a reaction to an internal state caused by another situation.
4th example
.
Husband:
Have you ever seen my cufflinks?
Wife:
You are always losing everything, you cannot do without a nanny. It's all your mommy. Spoiled you.
5th example
.
Husband:
Have you ever seen my cufflinks?
Wife:
You're always nagging me! Why should I keep track of your cufflinks and remember where you put what!
When intersecting transactions occur, communication breaks down, and to restore it, one or both partners need to change their ego states. A breakdown in communication may be perceived by people as a slight shake-up, but it can also lead to the final termination of the relationship. Berne calculated that 72 types of overlapping transactions are theoretically possible. But in fact, most often in practice there are two of them: when the stimulus B - B intersects with the response D - R or R - D.
12.2.2.3. Hidden transactions
In a covert transaction, two messages are transmitted simultaneously. One of them is an open, or social level message, the other is a hidden, or psychological level message. In the case of a hidden transaction, the verbal part of the message indicates the adult position of the communicants, but intonation, voice, gestures and facial expressions may indicate additional, parent-child relationships.
6th example
.
Husband:
Have you seen my cufflinks?
(Intonationally it sounds like: “Sorry, honey, for distracting you, but I’m so distracted and don’t remember where I put my cufflinks.”)
Wife:
They are still there.
(In the tone of a “strict” parent: “You’re always losing everything, you can’t do without a nanny”).
7th example
.
Husband:
Have you seen my cufflinks?
(Intonationally it sounds like: “The devil knows what’s going on: there’s always bedlam in the house.”)
Wife:
They are still there.
(Intonation of an offended child: “Why are you nagging me? Why do I have to remember everything?”)
In the above transaction examples, a social level message is conveyed as if an Adult were talking to an Adult. But intonationally in the examples, Parent and Child are talking. As a result, psychologically these are intersecting transactions that also lead to interruption of interaction, although for a shorter period. Berne described another, corner transaction, when two Adults are talking at the social level, but the hidden transaction is addressed to the Child. A typical example is provocation on the part of the seller.
8th example
.
Salesman:
This phone is the best we have today. It has a camera, Internet connection, and many new functions. And look how large its display and memory capacity are: it remembers up to three hundred numbers. But of course it's expensive. (Intonation: “Perhaps you can’t afford it.”)
Buyer
(challengingly
):
I'll take it.
The seller was addressing the buyer's Child when talking about the product, but the buyer could have responded from an Adult position: “Yes, you are absolutely right, it is too expensive, I will wait until it drops in price.” Then the seller's manipulative behavior would be thwarted by the buyer's Adult position. This suggests that the outcome of an ulterior transaction is determined at a psychological rather than a social level.
Hidden transactions also include manipulative ones, aimed at provoking a partner to a negative action or response that would allow the contact to be interrupted. A. Dobrovich explains the manipulation using the example of “Dead End”.
The wife feels that her husband has begun to be burdened with her. Meanwhile, he brings tickets to the theater for a performance that has long interested both of them. During his wife's excited dressing, he, however, makes a sharp remark to her:
- You're always digging!
- It’s okay, we’ll make it by taxi.
- By taxi? What extravagance! This is why I have to work like hell!
If he manages to provoke his wife into retaliatory “injections,” the manipulation turns into breaking contact and slamming the door. The husband goes to his friends, leaving his wife, if she wishes, to rush to the theater herself. At the same time, on the one hand, he achieved what he wanted, on the other, he is not responsible for the scandal. After all, it was none other than him who brought the tickets! The wife finds herself driven into a “dead end” (50, p. 65).
Thus, Bern managed to create a theory of human interaction that is quite simple to understand, but deep in content, based initially on psychoanalytic theory.
The theory of transactional analysis formed the basis of the psychotherapeutic direction of the same name. It is successfully used in different countries, which indicates the universality of the proposed concepts. 12.3.
Using transactions to analyze social situations Transactional analysis proposed by Berne makes it possible to understand how people interact, perceive and influence each other. The strength of transactional analysis is that it is applicable to a wide range of social phenomena, not just to the interactions of people in everyday life. Let us give just one example of using Berne's principles to analyze the difficult social situation that has developed throughout the post-Soviet space.
As the philosopher A.I. Prigozhy writes[8] 8
Prigozhy A.I.
Methods for the development of organizations. – M: MCFR, 2003, 863 p.
[Close], the business culture of Russia in the context of transformation still suffers from the managerial incompetence of managers at all levels. He explains this state of affairs in terms of transactional analysis: “For the Soviet system, all subjects were children (D), unreasonable and wayward. They had to be raised, constantly looked after, taught, protected from unnecessary knowledge and contacts. Decide for them what is possible and what is not. And the authorities then took on the responsibilities of Parents (P). She fussed, watched, fed, provided food, clothing, housing, taking from some and giving to others, bestowing praise, frightening with punishment. In other words, parent-child relationships have been thoroughly established on our land; they are readily accepted by the majority, and attempts to question their viability are angrily rejected.”
It should be noted that the Soviet system organically absorbed the parent-child relationship of the traditional culture of pre-revolutionary Russia, headed by an autocrat called the Tsar-Father. True, at the same time there was a collective distribution of resources and collective actions at the community level, which were the main component of social relations in the peasant environment and required an adult position and partnerships. The destruction of the peasant community “destroyed” the adult positions of the people. In modern Russia, even today, they childishly expect protection from the state in the form of benefits and allowances. And even replacing benefits with cash is perceived negatively, because you will have to manage the money yourself and make decisions for which you will need to be responsible to yourself.
Speaking about post-industrial countries, Prigogine emphasizes that among liberals all people are social adults (B). Liberals do not want to be parents; they suggest taking responsibility for your life, and looking for strength for business and the origins of failures in yourself. According to the formula: both we and you are adults, you are free to organize your life at your own discretion. The author rightly points out that reform is not so much an economic or political problem as a sociocultural one,
that the transition from management relationships of the “Parents - Children” type to the “Adults - Adults” type occurs much later than price release, privatization or free elections. “That’s why there was an excess of ineffective owners, incompetent democracy and supporters of the Soviet system from among its former destroyers. Scientifically speaking, the control signal is sent to them via the “B-B” channel, and they respond via the “D-R” channel.
A.I. Prigozhy points to a cross-hidden transaction, as a result of which contact is destroyed, in this case between the government and the people. The question is: will political power be able to abandon the paternalism of traditional culture and act like an Adult, expecting the same reaction from members of the still emerging civil society? I would like to hope!
As for management culture, even today in enterprises and institutions “parental culture”
leadership style, when subordinates are driven into a business childhood. Many managers not only do not know how, but are also afraid to delegate their powers “downwards”. On the one hand, many of them have heard that this increases management efficiency, but they cannot decide to do so. As a result, the leader takes upon himself the maximum volume of connections, decisions, and responsibilities and elevates centralization and vertical leadership beyond the limits of human capabilities. Management becomes ineffective, middle managers who are afraid to make independent decisions are weakened. This style is called "manual control". It is also ineffective because it does not allow one to determine the development strategy of an enterprise, city, region, or country as a whole, since people become fixated on tactical issues and “get bogged down” in solving current problems. With this style of leadership, people work a lot, beyond all norms, sometimes 10-12 hours, but the result of such work is minimal and even often negative.
Thus, the social competence of people affects both social and political and economic relations in society.
For successful transformation, society must have a sufficient number of “Adults” (in Bern’s understanding) people who are able to make decisions independently, know and understand the significance of business relationships between “Adults” people. Otherwise, initiative is blocked in management systems, the energy of the organization is extinguished, and excessive control and information “greed” of bosses cause a spasm, and then the collapse of the system. Therefore, social reform must be accompanied by cultural and socio-psychological education. Its underestimation can lead to negative social consequences, among which the most common is refusal of reforms and cultural transformation. To summarize what has been said, it is necessary to emphasize the following: the main task of modern society is the rationalization of business relationships, the transition from parent-child relationships with their emotions to relationships between adults. Summary
The entire set of relationships can be considered as a process of communication, since it is communication as an act of communication that represents the only means and way of establishing relationships. This was already noted by ancient thinkers. Aristotle believed that social life in the polis is a kind of communication,
which connects people and through which policies are implemented.
Russian psychologist G. M. Andreeva considers communication to be the main process of establishing contacts between people. It highlights, on the one hand, the terminal
aspect of communication, which is determined by the goals and needs of joint activities, and on the other hand, emphasizes
the instrumental
aspect of communication, indicating by what means it is carried out.
K. Levin devoted one of his studies to the style of relationships that are established in the process of communication, highlighting authoritarian, democratic
and
a permissive style.
He came to the conclusion that the style of relationships is determined by certain communicative actions that are capable of creating a particular atmosphere in a group using conventional means of communication. The style can be partnering and imperative (forceful), friendly and businesslike, accommodating and official, dismissive and conducive to continuing contact. On a personal level, communication style is the established, habitual forms of a person’s behavior towards others, which are used to achieve certain goals in relationships.
When analyzing business relationships, social psychologists identified two orientations in a person’s interaction with other people - adapting
and
leadership.
These two orientations determine people's position in contact, their ability to behave in society and behave accordingly. In addition, psychologists have found that one part of people focuses their activities on completing a task, and the other part on establishing friendly relationships with others.
An indicator of the ability to establish and develop contacts is communicative competence
as a set of means of communication owned by an individual. Communicative competence can be more or less perfect, which depends on the innate qualities of a person and on the skills, abilities and knowledge acquired by him in the process of growing up. During the process of socialization, various patterns of behavior that a growing person observes are learned.
The analysis of human relationships in the process of communication became the subject of research by E. Bern, who in the 1950s. developed the theory of ego states.
The theory provided an example of a simple and understandable analysis of emerging relationships in the most complex situations of interpersonal and business communication.
Berne proposed to distinguish three states of the “I”: Parent, Adult and Child. Each ego state is closed and the categories of thinking, feeling and acting apply to it. Berne also identified three main forms of transactions: parallel, intersecting and hidden transactions. Parallel transactions
are transactions in which communication partners complement each other, being in the same or corresponding ego states.
Overlapping transactions
occur when the ego states of the partners do not match, which leads to an interruption of contact for some time.
In covert transactions,
two messages are simultaneously transmitted, one of them is an overt, or social-level message, and the other is a hidden, or psychological-level message. Transactional analysis proposed by Berne made it possible to understand how people perceive and influence each other in personal, business and social relationships, using certain ego states in the process of interaction.
The business culture of post-Soviet countries is closely connected with parent-child relationships, which are more characteristic of traditional and totalitarian societies. This complicates, according to the philosopher A.I. Prigozhin, the transformation of social and business relations between people, necessary for the information society. The author rightly points out that rationalization of relations is required, that reform is not so much an economic or political problem as a sociocultural one.
Thus, the social competence of people and the style of communication they have adopted affects the entire set of relationships in society. For a successful transformation, there must be a sufficient number of “Adults” (in Bern’s understanding) in society who are able to make decisions independently, know and understand the importance of rationalizing business relations, and use a predominantly partnership style. All this will contribute to Russia’s advancement on the path to an information society.
Part 4 Psychology of small groups
Chapter 13 Small Group Development
In democratic countries, the ability to create associations is the fundamental basis of public life;
the progress of all its other aspects depends on the progress in this area Alexis de Tocqueville
In social psychology, a large number of works are devoted to the study of small groups. The small group is the subject of close attention in both foreign and domestic science. However, the phenomenon of the small group itself was comprehended only in the 20th century.
A.I. Dontsov, analyzing the evolution of the word “group” and its transformation into a scientific concept, highlights the following important points related to this process: 1) in the 17th century. the term “group” was used by artists and sculptors to designate a method of composition of visual material in which the figures form a unity and create a holistic artistic impression; 2) in the 18th century. this concept is beginning to be used to designate real human communities, whose members are united by a characteristic that distinguishes them from others; 3) in the second half of the 19th century. the psychological discovery of a social group as a special reality of human relations took place; 4) at the beginning of the 20th century. the object of study of social psychology becomes a small group, that is, a person’s immediate environment, the environment of his direct communication; 5) since the 1930s. interest in the psychological problems of groups becomes persistent. Classic studies of groups by E. Mayo, M. Sherif, K. Levin and others lay the foundations for a modern understanding of the nature of group processes (53, p. 17).
Significant research practice in domestic and foreign social psychology allows us to identify several key topics in the study of the psychology of small groups.
These are issues of their classification and the conditions for the formation of small groups, problems of group dynamics, leadership and management, group effects and levels of group development. Each of these topics will receive special attention in this chapter. 13.1.
Classification of small groups There are a huge number of different groups in society. The human community did not know any other form of existence, therefore the same socio-psychological laws of group dynamics operate in groups. The concept of group dynamics brings together a very wide range of issues: the division of power within the group, methods of communication, the roles played by group members, the degree of loyalty of group members, etc. Having learned to recognize group dynamics in action, a person will be able to apply his knowledge in any groups (131, p. 13).
According to the American social psychologist B. Bales, “a small group can be defined as a number of people interacting with each other in one or more meetings.” J. Homans gave the following definition: “A small group is a number of individuals interacting with each other over a period of time.” D. Cartwright and A. Zander believed that “a group is a collection of individuals who often interact with each other.” S. Ash o. Domestic psychologist A.I. Dontsov, after analyzing numerous definitions of the group, gave the following definition:
A group is a collection of freely united individuals who are equally useful to each other, in the process of cooperative interaction satisfying personal needs and desires
(53, p. 27).
A group is an element of the social structure of society. In the broadest sense, a social group is
This is a community of people distinguished from an integral social system on the basis of a certain characteristic. Depending on this characteristic, at least three classifications of social groups are possible - according to their numbers, duration of existence and structural features.
The first classification is based on such a criterion (attribute) as number,
that is, the number of people who are members of the group. Accordingly, there are three types of groups:
1) small group - a small community of people who are in direct personal contact and interaction;
2) middle group – a relatively large community of people who are in indirect functional interaction;
3) large group - a large community of people who are socially and structurally dependent on each other.
Despite the seemingly formal approach to classification, the size of the group is important for psychology. Both the forms of membership and the level of contacts between people, as well as the nature of the group’s activities and its structure, depend on how many people a group has. In table Figure 13.1 presents the main differences between small, medium and large groups.
Table 13.1. Main differences between groups.
The second classification is based on such a criterion as the lifetime
groups. Here short-term and long-term groups are distinguished. Small, medium and large groups can be either short-term or long-term. For example, an ethnic community is always a long-term group, while political parties can exist for centuries, or they can disappear from the historical scene very quickly, within a few months. Such a small group, such as a team of workers, can be either short-term - people unite to complete one production task and separate after its completion, or long-term - people work for several years at the same enterprise in the same team.
The third classification is based on such criteria as structural integrity
groups. On this basis, primary and secondary groups are distinguished. A primary group is a structural unit of an official organization that cannot be broken down into further components, for example: a school class, a team, a department, a laboratory, etc. A primary group is always a small formal group. A secondary group is a collection of primary small groups. An enterprise with several thousand employees belongs to the secondary group, since it consists of smaller structural units - workshops and departments. The secondary group is almost always the middle group, that is, the organization (152, pp. 48-50).
Thus, the organization of an industrial enterprise, trading company, corporation is an average, secondary, most often long-term group.
R. Cialdini, D. Kenrik, S. Neuberg in their book “Social Psychology. Understand others to understand yourself." (2002) also consider groups in dynamics. They propose the term “groupness”, understanding by it the development of a group along a continuum (Fig. 13.1).
Rice. 13.1. Development of a group in the “groupness” continuum
At the initial stage, there are “non-groups” - these are two or more people who do not influence each other. Gradually, aggregations of people increasingly resemble groups in which members are interdependent and share a common identity and structure. The authors believe that “groupness” should be viewed as a continuum of a group that has structure, interdependence, and a common identity (204, p. 149).
Social psychologists have found that the patterns of functioning and development of a group are largely determined by its size, the time of interaction between people and structural and functional unity. Let's consider the socio-psychological characteristics of a small group.
Forms of communication
E. Burn considers the following forms of communication: play, entertainment, activity, ritual, intimacy, withdrawal. The game is a set of hidden transactions leading to conflict. With this form of communication, one of the subjects always loses, since there is no equality of interests or complementarity.
Game groups
- Games of life (“Victim”, “Alcoholic”, “Debtor”, etc.)
- Family games (“Scandal”, “Harried Housewife”, etc.)
- Games in, “Disadvantage”, etc.)
- Sexual games (“Get off, you fool”, “Stocking”, etc.)
- Doctor's office games ("Peasant Woman", "I'm Just Trying to Help You", etc.)
- Constructive games (“Flatterer”, “Home Sage”, etc.)
Despite the fact that gaming can cause psychosis and neuroses, this form of communication has its advantages. If you “play” in doses or at the initial stages of communication, then in this way you can get closer to a person (techniques for such rapprochement are described by former FBI agent Jack Schafer in his book “Turning on Charm Using the Secret Services Method”), get emotional release, or simply kill time.
Entertainment
This is a form of communication whose purpose is to occupy free time. For example, conversations during lunch breaks in the office. In order to avoid conflict in this form of communication, it is necessary to maintain a common line on the chosen topic. If girlfriends discuss the shortcomings of their husbands and attach cliches to them from the category “all men walk to the left,” then they will negatively accept the opposite position of one of the interlocutors.
Activity (Procedure)
This is a form of communication in which communication is built on the basis of the Adult-Adult model. For example, work process or study. As a rule, people who constantly communicate with each other use activity as a way to escape conflict. For example, if a conflict is brewing in a family relationship, then the partners throw themselves into work; in such cases, weekend neurosis is possible.
Ritual
A form of communication associated with the attitudes of society and general moral and value concepts of the social environment in which a person finds himself. The ritual represents the Parent-Parent model. Such communication does not lead to the creation of conflict. Rituals are divided into formal and informal. Transactional analysis helps not to take to heart the actions and words performed during the ritual, since these are a kind of evidence of the past.
Proximity
E. Burn characterized intimacy as “a sincere non-game relationship between people with a free mutual exchange of thoughts and feelings, excluding profit.” Eric Byrne believed that this particular form of communication helps maintain health and avoid conflicts.
Withdrawal
Immersion of a person in his inner world. This model of communication is typical for people who have received some kind of emotional trauma in the process of communicating with other people, and is expressed in the form of internal dialogue. Withdrawal into oneself has the function of calming and cleansing of unnecessary emotions. However, if withdrawal into oneself drags on for a long time, it can develop into obsessive-compulsive psychosis.
The purpose of transactional analysis is to determine the ego state of the subject of communication who sends the message and the subject who reacts to this message. That is, analyzing the game a person is in and finding ways to get out of this game. E. Burn believed that a person begins to learn games in childhood and the surest way to protect a child from neurotic problems in adulthood is proper upbringing.
