It was this theory that was adhered to by the British teacher John Locke, the Soviet psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, the Soviet teacher Anton Semenovich Makarenko and others.
There is also a concept that combines the two approaches described above - biosocial. Proponents of the biosocial concept believe that mental processes have a biological nature, and interests and orientation are formed under the influence of the environment.
Let's take a closer look at each of these concepts.
Personality development according to Vygotsky
The concept of personality development of the Russian scientist L. S. Vygotsky arose at the beginning of the 20th century. The first publication dates back to 1928 and is called “The Problem of the Cultural Development of the Child.”
Vygotsky was the first to focus on the child’s social environment. The scientist noted that during its development there are two interconnected lines - the first of them relates to the independent maturation of higher mental functions, the second - depends on the cultural and social environment. It is in his environment that the child masters behavior patterns and ways of thinking.
The development of attention, memory, speech, thinking and other functions always occurs first through external activity, and only then do these external functions become internal, or intrapsychic. Everything a child learns, he first does with an adult. The program of personal development, according to Vygotsky, cannot be implemented without dialogism - the main feature of consciousness, formed through interaction with an adult.
The basic concept of personality development, first introduced by Vygotsky, is called the “zone of proximal development,” or those actions that a child is not yet able to perform on his own, but can do them together with an adult. The researcher believed that only learning that goes ahead of development can be called good.
The basic concepts of personality development according to Vygotsky also include the concept of gradual development. The development process occurs according to a stepwise principle - smooth stages of knowledge accumulation are replaced by sharp leaps. Another important concept in Vygotsky’s theory is the child’s activity. The views of other psychologists of that time, for example, in the works of B. Skinner, were dominated by the idea that the child is the subject of the adult’s activity. But none of the scientists before Vygotsky considered children as those who themselves can actively influence their elders.
Basics of Erikson's theory
A person, according to the definitions of social psychology, is a subject who learns something and gains a certain experience. At the same time, the subject of his study is an object. Social psychology studies the inner world of a person himself, his actions when interacting with society. Not only individual personality traits are studied, but also the manifestation of character in certain situations.
In Erik Erikson's theory, at each stage a person faces societal expectations. If he justifies them, then he becomes part of society. Otherwise society rejects him. This simple idea formed the basis for the development of 8 phases of the life path that every individual encounters.
At each stage of development, the individual is given a specific task, which is assigned by society. Its decision depends not only on a person’s experience, but also on the spiritual state of society. Erikson's theory covers all stages of the life cycle - from birth to death. The psychologist takes into account the historical period in which the child was born and raised. Also, the formation of personality is influenced by social conditions, cultural development, the accepted value system, and significant events.
A person is a separate system that interacts with the world around him thanks to the organs of perception, thought processes, memory, and attention. Over time, the individual adapts to any conditions and, based on his experience, moves on.
The purpose of Erikson's concept is to draw attention to the fact that the individual is capable of solving psychosocial problems. In the foreground in theory is the human “I”, positive character traits that are revealed in certain life situations.
Erikson argues that every difficulty a person faces is a unique challenge to society. After overcoming the crisis, the individual becomes stronger, smarter, more experienced. To understand the source of certain problems, it is enough to find out how an individual dealt with a certain problem in the past.
The stages of personality development are known in advance. They are the same for every person. The sequence of stages cannot be changed. Erikson identified 8 phases of development that correspond to a specific age range. At each stage there is a crisis that occurs when an individual reaches a certain psychological state. The formation of problems is also influenced by the demands put forward by society.
There are advantages and disadvantages to be found in every crisis. With a successful solution to the problem, a person acquires a new positive quality, which simplifies the process of enriching himself with pleasant experiences at the next stage of life.
Life in Erikson's theory is a chain of changes in different aspects. If it was not possible to overcome the crisis, then the personality acquires a negative quality. In the future, this experience will hinder the development of the individual. However, it is possible that the problems will recur. Some conflicts and internal pressures accompany a person throughout his life, although he constantly copes with them. In addition, new crises constantly appear. But if you successfully complete the stage, it will be easier to cope with problems in the future.
Meneghetti concept
Antonio Meneghetti is an Italian scientist who created the field of psychological knowledge called “Ontopsychology”. Meneghetti was both a scientist and a psychotherapist who received degrees in various fields - theology, philosophy, psychology. The word “ontopsychology” consists of three parts. “Onto” means “being,” “psycho” means “soul,” and “logos” means “meaning.” Meneghetti founded a scientific-psychological school dedicated to the development of ontopsychology. Meneghetti's concept of personality development is based on both philosophical and psychological knowledge. From philosophical works, his theory was influenced by the works of E. Husserl, M. Heidegger, Parmenides. Among psychological studies, the works of A. Adler, Z. Freud, A. Maslow, and K. Jung had the greatest impact.
The main practical task of onotopsychology was to achieve human compliance with his nature, inner essence. Meneghetti identified the basic concepts of personality development:
- “Essence in itself”, or the so-called “In-Se” - the inner core of the human soul, where its true existence lies;
- "In-se's Undistorted Projections";
- “Distorted projections”, or psychological complexes;
- The “conscious-logical self” is the only part of the human psyche that has awareness.
Ontopsychology views a person as immersed in his own mental processes, but at the same time having practically no information about himself. It is believed that the inner core of a person - “In-Se” - has a positive nature. Each person contains all the resources necessary for self-realization. And the more a person’s path deviates from the direction of realizing his capabilities, the greater the feeling of dissatisfaction becomes.
One of the main concepts of personality development according to Meneghetti is that all physical and mental illnesses arise when a person goes against his own nature. He is inclined to blame anyone for his troubles, but is unable to understand that he is destroying himself with his own hands. The implementation of a personal development plan begins with the fact that a person is aware of his individual characteristics and how his current lifestyle interferes with self-realization.
This situation is called existential schizophrenia by ontopsychologists. Translated from ancient Greek, the word “schizophrenia” means “split brain.” When internal desires conflict with circumstances, the demands of society, and a person surrenders to them, existential schizophrenia arises. The main task of a psychotherapist-ontopsychologist is for a person to achieve conformity with his life and inner essence.
What is Ego Integration?
The feeling of ego integration is the feeling of the integrity of one’s “I”. Initially, children do not have a sense of “I”. For them, the world around them and themselves are one and the same. The famous psychologist Jean Piaget emphasized that infants have no personality boundaries. They begin to form only by 2-3 years.
The highest level of personal development is a state when the world for a person becomes an ideal place to satisfy his needs (both spiritual and lower order). This state is called integration in psychology. From an evolutionary point of view, it means the highest degree of fitness.
The integrated personality is a clipboard between society and the inner world. She is able to avoid harmful factors, enhance beneficial ones, and even turn evil into good. A high degree of integration is characterized by professional development of the individual at a serious level.
According to Erikson, ego integration arises as a property of late life. But only if a person was able to experience numerous victories and defeats during his life and was an inspiration for others. Ego integration of an elderly person is a look at the past years and their positive assessment: “I am satisfied with the life I have lived.” Such people are not afraid of death. Indeed, in their descendants or creative achievements, they were able, in a certain sense, to gain immortality.
On the other side of the barricades are those who have “wasted their lives.” They look at the time they have lived with regret: it now seems like a series of missed opportunities. At the end of their lives, they feel that it is too late to start something. Erikson's theory of personality development identifies two types of mentality in such people. First, they regret that life cannot be lived again. Secondly, they deny their own shortcomings, projecting them onto the world around them. “Despair means that there is too little time left to choose another path to wholeness; That’s why old people try to embellish their memories,” Erikson writes in his works. Feelings of anxiety and self-pity in their extreme cases lead to mental disorders in old age. These are hypochondria, paranoia, depression and dementia.
Personality Development and Jungian Analytical Psychology
As you know, Carl Gustav Jung was a student of Freud. But he moved significantly away from the central idea of Freudian psychoanalysis. In Jung's theory, the struggle with the animal part of oneself does not occupy a central place. Jung's concept of personality development, in addition to the individual unconscious, includes the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is the “memory of generations.” It includes all the experiences that people who lived before us could have experienced.
The collective unconscious manifests itself in archetypes - those images that are common to all humanity. Jung considered the images repeated among different peoples to be direct evidence of the theory of the collective unconscious. For example, in many myths and legends there is a figure of the goddess of fertility, who is the archetype of the Mother.
Other concepts in Jung's concept are "Ego", "Persona", "Anima", "Animus" and "Shadow". The “I” is the central part of a person’s conscious activity. “Persona” is a mask that is worn in public, in society. The female archetype within the male psyche is called “Anima”, and the male archetype within the female psyche is called “Animus”. “Shadow” are those character traits the presence of which the individual himself does not recognize in himself. “Ego” has two sides: light - what a person recognizes in himself, and also dark - “Shadow”.
The structure of activity theory
The activity theory of A. N. Leontyev examines the motives and needs of a person in the context of activity. Leontyev divided it into several levels:
- The first level is activity. It is characterized by certain needs and motives, on the basis of which a certain goal or task is formed.
- The second level is actions that are subordinate to achieving the goal.
- The third level is operations. These are ways of carrying out actions that depend on the conditions for achieving a specific goal.
- The fourth level is psychophysiological functions. It is the lowest level in the structure of activity, characterized by the physiological support of mental processes, that is, a person’s ability to think, feel, move and remember.
Leontiev's theory provides a detailed description of the structure of activity and determines its connection with the needs and motives that motivate a person to various types of activity.
Thus, Leontiev showed the connection between external practical actions and human behavior - with internal processes of mental actions and human consciousness. In Leontiev’s theory of activity, its main types are: labor, cognitive, play.
Jung's concept of personality development: goal
Jung's concept of personality development suggests that the goal of becoming is to find oneself. The “I” always turns out to be hidden under a guise, a “Persona”. The process of self-knowledge begins with the fact that a person becomes acquainted with the “Shadow”. The process of individuation, or psychological birth, occurs throughout life. This is how Jung's theory differs from Freud's ideas, according to which personality development occurs mainly at the beginning of life.
According to analytical psychology, created by Jung, personality development occurs in the process of acquiring new skills and self-knowledge. It represents the desire for peace, wholeness and harmony. The main goal in life is the full realization of the capabilities of the “Ego”.
"Three pillars of the human psyche"
Freud's personality theory has been modernized over time. In 1923, he proposed a structural model of the psyche based on the concepts of “Id,” “Ego,” and “Super-Ego.” These are not any specific areas of the brain or psyche, but rather hypothetical formations corresponding to important mental functions.
Thus, the “Id” is completely unconscious. It is formed by two opposing drives, Eros and Thanatos. The first of these instincts is the instinct of love. It helps a person survive by supporting basic life functions such as eating, breathing, sex. The energy created by Eros is called libido.
Thanatos is the death instinct. Freud's psychological theory views it as a collection of destructive forces inherent in all human beings. When this energy is directed outward toward other people, it takes the form of aggression and violence. Sigmund Freud believed that Eros is still stronger than Thanatos, and only thanks to this can a person survive, and not destroy himself.
The "ego" develops from the "id" during infancy. This structure of the psyche can be classified as conscious; it personifies the personality of a person. The “id” is sometimes compared to a capricious child with many conflicting desires. And this child is used to demanding their fulfillment. The goal of the ego is to satisfy all the needs of the id in a safe and socially acceptable way.
The superego also develops in childhood. It occurs when a child begins to identify with a parent of the same gender. The “superego” is sometimes called the conscience, since it is responsible for a person’s compliance with moral principles. It encourages us to engage in socially approved behavior. And, if this does not happen, the “Super-Ego” makes us feel guilty.
Thus, Freud's theory of personality states that the human psyche is controlled by the trinity described above: “Id”, “Ego” and “Super-Ego”.
Personality development according to Adler
Alfred Adler was the first psychologist to introduce the concept of “inferiority complex.” In contrast to the psychoanalytic theory developed by Freud, Adler gives the main role not to sexuality, but to social factors. The basic concept of personality development according to Adler is that personality is formed through a “life style.” Life style is a set of psychological attitudes that are compensatory in nature. For example, the ancient Greek orator Demosthenes suffered from a stutter in his youth. Many of the commanders - Napoleon, Suvorov - were short.
Adler believed that all children from birth feel inferior to their omnipotent parents. Therefore, the task of combating an inferiority complex faces every child. It can be carried out both positively and negatively - in this case, a person grows with a desire for power over others. But usually the desire to compensate for one’s inferiority is the engine of development.
According to Adler, the main role in the development of personality is played by a person’s “Ego” - it is with its help that a person chooses a certain type of behavior and individual attitudes. An obstacle to development is social rules. However, no person can exist without society, so the conflict between creative self-realization and social norms is inevitable. Alfred calls this conflict "the eternal desire to gain the approval of society and cease to be a part of it."
Meaning of speech
The most important feature according to Vygotsky is dialogicity. Through interaction with adults or other children, the child develops his consciousness. The mind is built by mastering signs (they are words). First, children learn to recognize and remember them, then they begin to compare the word with its meaning. The set of letters takes on meaning. HMF consists of thinking in signs. When all thoughts are passed through phrases, that is, people think in words.
At first, symbols help to understand and influence others, and later speech becomes the main component of thinking. Without speech, as well as without communication, a person cannot be a full-fledged person. After all, even internal dialogue is conducted using words. The word relates to consciousness as the lesser to the greater. For example, like an atom to a substance. In other words, the mind consists of words.
Personality development according to A. S. Makarenko
A. S. Makarenko is a brilliant domestic psychologist. In 1988, UNESCO identified four teachers who, with their works, defined the entire method of pedagogy of the 20th century - they turned out to be D. Dewey, G. Kershensteiner, M. Montessori and A. Makarenko.
Makarenko organized colonies for those children whom society considered completely spoiled - boys-thieves, girls-prostitutes. No one could cope with them - even parents sometimes brought their children to the teacher on their own. And Makarenko achieved enormous results in his skill. He independently, without the help of educators, headed the colony for juvenile offenders. Dzerzhinsky. The number of its inhabitants reached 500-600 people.
Currently, statistics from the Prosecutor General's Office show: about 10% of orphanage graduates adapt to society, 40% develop alcoholism or drug addiction, and about 10% commit suicide. For comparison, out of 3 thousand graduates of A. S. Makarenko there was not a single criminal case. Many already adult graduates considered themselves “happy people.”
However, despite the successes, the concept of personality development according to A. S. Makarenko was not recognized by official pedagogical science. One of his opponents was N. S. Krupskaya. The Makarenko system was banned in Soviet schools and orphanages. Makarenko was saved by the writer M. Gorky - it was thanks to his efforts that the teacher got the opportunity to work in the colony named after. Dzerzhinsky.
Basic concepts of the colonist program
How did Makarenko achieve such brilliant results? The personal development program for the colonists included several concepts - business, format, and the core of the team.
Business is an occupation that the colonists had. Business was a source of income for them and at the same time discipline. With the money they earned, the inmates of the colony supported themselves and their younger comrades, went on hikes, and saved money for the future. At the age of 17-19, many already became production masters.
The core of the team. The educator was not involved in educating the residents of the colony. The plan for the personal development of new arrivals was the responsibility of the authoritative members of the colony. In their own language, they explained to them the basic values of the team - Makarenko himself only observed that this happened within the framework of civilization.
Format. Makarenko carefully ensured that there was strict discipline in the colony. He introduced special rules and rituals, thanks to which order was possible in the colony. The teacher was sure that the children should not even push each other, behave decently - Makarenko was never a supporter of humanistic theories, he valued restraint, discipline and military order.
Basic provisions of the Makarenko system
Many teachers, seeing children marching in formation, fell into horror. Makarenko’s personal development program gave brilliant results - but, as they believed, “the methods were not right.” The main idea of the teacher was the following: children can and should work. But now the time of child labor is prohibited. In fact, the Makarenko system is implemented only in some private enterprises.
Makarenko’s personal development program was based on discipline, which, at the same time, was not a method of education. Rather, order was its result. For the teacher, education was not a reading of morality - it was strictly established orders, the organization of the life of the colonists. The interests of the individual were always subordinated to the interests of the collective if the individual opposed public opinion. At the same time, Makarenko advocated democratic relations in the team and the possibility of creative self-expression. The teacher created all the conditions to ensure that the psychological climate in the colony was favorable. One of the main means of education was a mandatory regime for everyone. The regime must be precise and expedient.
Makarenko’s works were greatly influenced by the works of M. Gorky. The writer is known for having an optimistic approach to human nature, believing in his strength, and this is reflected in Makarenko’s concept of personality development. The teacher believed that the responsibility that a teacher bears is worth learning from Gorky. After all, the writer, having the ability to see the best in a person, was never moved by these traits and did not lower the bar of requirements.
Principles of education
The development of personal qualities begins in early childhood. All existing pedagogical and psychological theories agree on this. Each of them puts forward its own fundamental ideas regarding human upbringing. But if we consider the existing methods not separately, but as a whole, then we can identify the main principles inherent in each of the theories to one degree or another.
The following theses can be considered the fundamental principles of the educational process:
- a clear understanding of what needs to be “put into” a child’s head, that is, the purpose of the process;
- correctly determine acceptable and effective ways of conveying information and methods of influence;
- to correspond to what is being promoted, to be an authority in children’s eyes;
- understand the consequences of your actions;
- avoid physical punishment and familiarity;
- respect and love the child’s personality, guide it, and not suppress it.
The consequences of your actions should be understood as absolutely everything
For example, if a person explains to a child the need to show respect for older people, but does not consider it necessary to listen to his grandparents with attention, although he does not forget to give up his seat in transport to pensioners, then the consequence will be the child’s awareness of the relativity of dogmas. The child will learn that in certain situations moral standards can be neglected
Another example of consequences would be interrupting activities with your baby to answer the phone.
The child will learn that communication through a gadget is more important than direct contact. This type of behavior can be observed almost everywhere these days.
When raising a child’s personality and its development, it is not so important which of the basic theories the teacher or parent will adhere to. It is much more important not to forget about following the main pedagogical principles of the educational process
If they are not taken into account, then not a single educational method or theory will bring the desired result, no matter what they are
For example, if you want to raise a child in accordance with the ideas of free development, which were first formulated by Rousseau, you must not forget that you yourself will have to comply with them. You can’t tell your children one thing and do something else every day. This will lead to the development of duplicity and hypocrisy. For example, when developing a child’s personality in accordance with the theory of free upbringing, one should not force the child to learn the alphabet at the age of three or go to ballet school at the age of five, unless the child himself wants to do so.
Conclusion
Knowing the basic concepts of personality development, you can significantly influence the process of its formation. This knowledge is indispensable when raising children, as well as for working on oneself and drawing up a plan for personal development. Creating a favorable environment for personal growth requires certain efforts, as well as spiritual, time, and monetary costs. Such expenses are necessary in order for the child’s positive qualities to develop and the motivation for activity to increase. But popular wisdom says: “trees grow on stones.” Even if there are environmental factors and one must remember the proverb - heredity is far from ideal, a person has a chance to improve his life and increase even the small potential that he has.
Topic: Personal growth
