Psychoanalysis - what is it in psychology, theory briefly, methods"

The psychoanalytic direction is a direction in foreign psychology and psychotherapy of the 20th century, the founder of which is the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud. The psychoanalytic direction includes concepts whose ancestor is psychoanalysis.

At the center of the psychoanalytic approach are issues related to the dynamic aspects of the psyche (motives, drives, drives, internal conflicts). Thus, this direction can include the psychoanalysis of S. Freud, the analytical psychology of K. Jung, and the individual psychology of A. Adler.

What is psychoanalysis: the essence of the theory

Let's define the concept. The name is derived from two Greek words: “soul” and “decomposition, dismemberment.” The concept entered the scientific community in 1896 after the publication of a German article on the origin of neuroses. It is no longer possible to say exactly who first introduced the concept of psychoanalysis, but Sigmund Freud is considered its founder. It was he who invented psychoanalysis and proposed it as a branch of psychology.

The Laplanche and Pontalis dictionary gives the following definition of psychoanalysis: “This is a research method based on identifying the unconscious meanings of words, actions, products of human imagination (dreams, fantasies, delusions); a method for treating neurotic disorders based on this research; a set of theories of psychology and psychopathology that systematizes data obtained by the psychoanalytic method of research and treatment.”

Thus, psychoanalysis in simple words is a scientific theory and method of treating mental disorders. It is currently being considered in three areas:

as a psychological and philosophical theory of personality;
as a set of principles and methods for studying the unconscious of the individual;
as a direction in psychotherapy that helps get rid of intrapersonal conflicts, neuroses, complexes, psychoses, depression, phobias and other problems.

Psychoanalysis in psychology is considered both theory and practice. Let's look at the essence of S. Freud's theory of psychoanalysis.

What does psychoanalysis study? Unconscious motives and desires of the individual. If we talk about psychoanalysis as a theory, then its essence can be reflected in several theses (features):

the conflict between the conscious and unconscious leads to the development of neuroses, fears, depression and other psychological problems;
thoughts and behavior are determined by unconscious desires;
awareness of true motives, needs, desires is difficult due to the inclusion of protective mechanisms of the psyche;
psychological problems can be solved if they are brought to the level of consciousness (this can be done using psychoanalytic methods).

The basic idea of Freud's psychoanalysis is that there can be no inconsistency or interruption in human mental nature. That is, everything that a person has in the present is the result of the past. If something doesn’t suit you now, then you need to look for the reason in the past. And now we will analyze everything in more detail and in order.

Analytical psychology by K. Jung

Carl Jung (1875-1961) - Swiss psychiatrist, follower of Z. Freud, who created his own psychological direction, called “Analytical Psychology”.

Analytical psychology of Carl Jung

K. Jung believed that the personality structure consists of the Ego, the Personal Unconscious and the Collective Unconscious. Ego is the consciousness of a person, or everything we mean when we say “I”. It consists of sensations, memories, thoughts, perceptions. The personal unconscious is an area of the unconscious that contains formations that were previously at the level of consciousness, but were subsequently forgotten or repressed. The collective unconscious is the deepest level of mental activity, containing the innate experience of past generations of people, as well as animal ancestors.

Having studied the mythology and folklore of different countries and peoples, Jung came to the conclusion that there are certain images in the ideas of people that are similar for everyone. He called them archetypes. Carl Jung believed that it is the collective unconscious in the form of archetypes, which has absorbed universal human experience, that determines a person’s mental development. As an example, we can cite such archetypes as Persona, Anima and Animus, Shadow, Self.

The concepts of “extraversion” and “introversion” were also introduced by Jung. Extroverts are people who direct libido (vital energy) outward, to external events and other people. Introverts are people who direct their libido to the inner world.

Who is the founder of psychoanalysis

The author of the theory and founder of the method of psychoanalysis is the Austrian psychologist, psychoanalyst, psychiatrist and neurologist Sigmund Freud. He was also the founder of the school of psychoanalysis. Sometimes the theoretical basis of psychoanalysis (Freud's philosophy) is called Freudianism. Freud's theory had a significant influence on psychology, medicine, sociology, anthropology, literature and art of the 20th century.

Interesting! Freud's closest followers were K. Jung, K. Horney, A. Adler, E. Fromm and others. Some of the modern psychologists also rely on Freud's teachings.

Humanistic direction, 1951

In the 60s of the XX century. Humanistic approaches in psychology, centered on the uniqueness of the individual, are actively developing. One of the representatives and leaders of the humanistic movement is the American psychologist Carl Ransom Rogers. In his opinion, the “self-concept” acts as the foundation of the personality structure and is formed as a result of a person’s interaction with the surrounding social environment. The main postulates of the humanistic approach:

a person’s desire to develop and realize their potential is innate;
the inner essence of a person is positive and social;
humanistic orientation and constructiveness are the key to human survival and evolution;
To reveal the inner nature of a person, three conditions must be met: authenticity in communication, unconditional acceptance, and empathy.

Basics of psychoanalysis

The unconscious, sexual instinct, sublimation, Freudian slip - you may have heard these concepts. All of them relate to psychoanalysis. Do you know their definitions and essence? Now let’s figure it all out, consider the basics of personality psychoanalysis, and analyze the key concepts.

Consciousness and unconsciousness

In the theory of psychoanalysis, Freud identified 2 structures of the psyche. Each of them has three layers, but these structures are somewhat different from each other. First, let's look at the layers of the first structure:

Unconscious. All secret desires, repressed memories, animal instincts, immoral desires are stored here.
Preconscious, or subconscious. At this level is located what a person knows and remembers at the present time or, if desired, can remember.
Consciousness. These are thoughts, feelings, emotions, plans of a person in the present.

This is the primary structure of the psyche according to Freud. Later, the psychoanalyst discovered the method of free associations and developed a new structure (concept) of the structure of the psyche. In it he identified three elements: It, I and Super-ego.

"It", "I" and "Super-ego"

According to the theory of psychoanalysis, our psyche has three levels:

Id (It), or lower level. This is the level of instincts, drives - everything that remains in us from animals. This is also the level at which all repressed desires, memories, and needs are stored. Simply put, this is the level of the unconscious (popularly it is often called the subconscious, but now you know the difference). What happens at this level is beyond our control. It reminds itself of itself through emotions and feelings, mental states, dreams, slips of the tongue and typos, bodily symptoms, etc.
Ego (I), or middle level. This is the field of our awareness. Experience, knowledge, skills, beliefs and everything that we have accumulated in the process of socialization have gathered here. We control and understand everything that is here, we can control our thoughts and behavior.
Super-Ego (Super-I), or highest level. This is our inner moralist, critic and censor - conscience, if you like. At this level all our ideas about “what is good and what is bad” and how we should behave in society are located.

Often the id and the superego come into conflict, and the ego tries to reconcile them. In fact, every person spends most of his life in such a search for a balance between animal instincts and the highest moral values, prohibitions, and norms. Not everyone manages to maintain balance; sometimes we are tossed in one direction (we give in to desires, emotions), then in the other (we rationalize life too much, block our feelings and suppress desires). Both are dangerous. If falling to one side occurs too often, a person develops complexes, neuroses and other psychological problems.

Important! Suppressed desires lead to the development of complexes. Sublimation helps get rid of frustration (experience due to the inability to satisfy a need).

Defense Mechanisms

According to Freud, any psychological problems are associated with the conflict between the animal and the social in man. That is, when a person suppresses desires that are shameful by social standards, he gets sick, becomes aggressive, apathetic, and irritable. This can be avoided if you redirect the animal impulse into a productive direction: creativity, sports, career building, social activity. This is called sublimation - the transfer of sexual energy to another activity. Sublimation is one of the protective mechanisms of the psyche named by Freud.

In addition to sublimation, the psychoanalyst identified 7 more defense mechanisms (later other psychologists expanded this classification):

Crowding out. If a person does not understand how to satisfy his desires in a socially acceptable way, but cannot forget about it, then he represses them to the level of the unconscious. And he seems to forget (he really doesn’t remember). However, this does not mean that the impulses have disappeared. They continue to influence a person's thoughts and behavior. A lot of energy is spent on restraining desires, which is why a person soon falls ill.
Negation. The person convinces himself that it seemed to him that it happened by accident, that he misheard, etc. In general, he tries his best to convince himself that something unpleasant did not happen or that it did not happen to him.
Rationalization. A person convinces himself that he could not have acted differently. Yes, he committed a shameful act, but it was necessary. In most cases, the explanation actually looks logical, but it has nothing to do with the true motives.
Projection. A person blames others for what he does not accept in himself. For example, a cheater accuses his partner of cheating, a traitor suspects his friend, etc.
Substitution. When a person cannot take out his anger on one object, he takes out his aggression on another. For example, a child who is beaten by his parents beats younger children and abuses animals. A man who cannot hit his boss takes it out on his children and wife at home. By the way, replacement concerns not only aggression. Any emotion and feeling can take part in this. For example, a young man likes one girl, but he cannot be with her, so he meets with a more accessible one, imagining that passion (and sometimes trying to make the second girl the first).
Inversion. This is an attempt to evoke exactly the opposite feelings towards an object. For example, in order to survive a painful breakup, a girl begins to concentrate on the man’s real and imagined shortcomings. The goal is to make the object disgusting, not so attractive. Then the desire and attraction to him will disappear.
Regression. This is a return to the previous stage of development, that is, the inclusion of children's behavior patterns. You may have thought that we are talking about hysterics, screaming, crying, insults, demonstrative care, etc. Yes, but not only. Alcoholism, gambling, drug addiction, eating problems, smoking - this is also a form of regression. Adults do not escape reality - they solve problems.

The protective mechanism of the psyche is a set of unconscious reactions that protect a person from negative emotions and experiences. Defense mechanisms help maintain mental balance. However, you cannot rely only on these forces all the time. Frequent use of defense mechanisms leads to personality deformation and hinders socialization. And also, defense mechanisms sometimes fail, which also does not benefit the individual.

Psychosexual development

According to Freud, every person goes through 5 stages of psychosexual development, each of which has its own leading need:

Oral (0 – 1.5 years). At this stage, the baby needs close communication with the mother through breastfeeding. The mouth area is associated for a child with safety, care, and tenderness.
Anal (1.5 – 3 years). The need for independence prevails. This is potty training period. Going to the toilet independently is a child’s first conscious and serious action. He likes to feel that he is in control of himself and the situation. At the anal stage, the rudiments of self-control and self-regulation are formed.
Phallic (3 – 6 years). This is the stage of passing through the Oedipus complex (for girls - the Electra complex). According to Freud's theory, sexual energy is inherent in a person from birth. At the age of 3-6, children develop an interest in the parent of the opposite sex. The child tries with all his might to get his attention, love, care. Aggression and jealousy awaken towards a parent of the same sex as the child. Gradually, the offspring realizes that he is losing the “war”; the attraction goes to the subconscious level. In the future, it will transform into a search for a partner who is similar to a parent.
Latent (6 – 12 years). At this stage, the libido is dormant. The child needs social activity. It is important to encourage meeting with friends, participating in hobby groups, etc. Freud called reorientation toward social activity sublimation. And it is at this stage, as Freud believed, that the Ego and Superego appear.
Genital (puberty and up to 22 years). Sexual energy awakens, now it is directed towards the teenager’s peers. At first, interest in people of the same sex arises (this takes the form of friendship), and later the young man’s attention switches to people of the opposite sex. In adulthood, this results in the building of love relationships and family.

For example, getting stuck at the anal stage of development leads to the formation of an anal character. Such a person is characterized by stinginess, greed, stubbornness, pedantry, a tendency to aggression and self-destruction, impulsiveness, and conflict.

Note! Getting stuck at stages of development occurs due to insufficient or excessive satisfaction of the leading needs of this period. That is, the child was either not given something and for the rest of his life he tries to get what he wants, to compensate for the previous deficit, or he was “strangled” with something and in adult life he defends himself with all his might, defends personal boundaries, avoids what reminds him of the problem period from childhood.

Complexes

The concept of “complex” appeared in later versions of the theory of psychoanalysis and is associated with the name of Freud’s follower – A. Adler. A complex is a set of experiences that arise against the background of a contradiction between personal and social, “I want” and “should.”

They often talk about an inferiority complex - this is a combination of a person’s experiences due to the subjective perception of his own failure. Simply put, a person considers himself worse than others, less worthy. He sees the happiness and success of those around him, wants to feel the same, but cannot and does not know how to achieve this.

In fact, human psychoanalysis examines much more complexes. Here are just a few of the popular ones:

overcompensation complex - attempts to hide an inferiority complex through a demonstration of strength and aggression;
Phaedra complex - painful overprotection of a mother in relation to her son;
Polycrates complex – fear due to rapid development in life, anxiety against the backdrop of success;
Jonah complex – self-doubt and a feeling of unworthiness, denial of personal achievements and victories;
excellent student complex - a craving for perfectionism, the desire to be a “good girl” or “good boy” in everything;
impostor complex - a person thinks that he is taking someone else’s place, that he accidentally received all the benefits that he has.

How did psychoanalysis come about?

The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, was born in 1856 in Austria and spent most of his life Ackerman CE Psychoanalysis: A Brief History of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory. Positive Psychology. in Vienna. He entered medical school and trained as a neurologist in 1881. Soon he opened a private practice and began treating people with psychological disorders.

Freud's attention was drawn to a case described by his colleague, the Austrian physician and physiologist Joseph Breuer. Breuer's patient, Bertha Pappenheim, known in literature as "Anna O.", suffered from physical ailments for no apparent reason. But she felt better when Breuer helped her remember her traumatic experiences. This case will be described more than once by Freud Z. Famous cases from practice. M. 2007. Freud and other authors.

Freud became interested in the unconscious and in the 1890s, together with Breuer, began studying the state of neurotic patients under hypnosis. Colleagues came to the conclusion that the patients' condition improved when they learned through hypnosis about the real sources of their problems.

Freud also noted Psychoanalysis. Encyclopaedia Britannica. that many patients feel the effect of such therapy without hypnosis. Then he developed the technique of free association: the patient told the psychoanalyst everything that first comes to his mind when he hears words such as “mother”, “childhood”.

Freud also saw a pattern: often the most painful experiences of his patients were related to sex. He suggested that these anxious feelings were a consequence of suppressed sexual energy (libido), manifested in various symptoms. And those, according to Freud, are psychological defense mechanisms.

Using the technique of free association, Freud began to study the meaning of dreams, slips of the tongue, and forgetfulness. He considered Psychoanalysis. Psychology Today. that childhood traumas and conflicts give rise to sexual desires and aggression in a person as an adult.

The goal of Freud's psychoanalytic therapy was McLeod S. Psychoanalysis. Simply Psychology. the release of these repressed emotions and experiences, that is, an attempt to make the unconscious conscious. This healing is called “catharsis.”

Freud insisted that reducing symptoms is not enough; the problem will not be solved until its cause is eliminated.

During sessions of psychoanalytic therapy, the patient lay down McLeod S. Psychoanalysis. Simply Psychology. on a special couch, and Freud himself sat behind, taking notes. This helped both free themselves from social restrictions. To achieve a positive result, sometimes it was necessary to Ackerman CE Psychoanalysis: A Brief History of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory. Positive Psychology. conduct two to five sessions per week for several years. Sometimes patients, according to Freud Z. Famous cases from practice. M. 2007. Freud himself, experienced memories and associations so vividly, as if they were actually returning to the past. Although, in essence, psychoanalytic therapy is just a frank conversation.

Freud's couch. Image: Robert Huffstutter/Wikimedia Commons

Methods of psychoanalysis

As we have already found out, psychoanalysis is not only a theory, but also a practice. With its help, you can diagnose and correct your mental state. Psychoanalysis includes many techniques for working with the unconscious, but all of them can be divided into three groups.

Methods of psychoanalysis:

Interpretation. The point is to analyze and comprehend minor elements: slips of the tongue, random phrases, errors in speech, etc. The psychoanalyst and the client talk about the person’s past, present and visible future, and during this the specialist identifies hidden problems and fears. That is, he interprets the client’s words and helps to “translate” them. Interpretation does not act as an independent method, but as an auxiliary one. For example, it is used in combination with two other popular methods of psychoanalysis: the method of free association and the method of dream interpretation.
Free associations. The psychoanalyst calls the client words, phrases or shows pictures and invites him to respond with the first thing that comes to mind. Auxiliary materials are prepared in advance. They can be developed by the psychologist himself for a specific case. Or the specialist uses well-known techniques, for example, the Rorschach drawing test (ink spots on paper). It was Freud, with his psychoanalysis and the method of free association, who created the image of a patient lying on a couch and a psychologist listening to the client. In life, such communication is rare, but then Freud interacted with clients this way. He invited the person to lie down on the couch, relax and start saying whatever came to mind. Strange, obscene, fantastic, shameful - it doesn’t matter. There are no taboos in the psychoanalyst’s office, and the specialist adheres to the principle of a non-judgmental attitude. Sooner or later, in the process of such a free flight of associations, a person independently came to the main conflict.
Analysis of dreams. Nowhere does the unconscious manifest itself more actively than in dreams. Particular attention should be paid to recurring dreams or dreams after which a person wakes up “broken.” According to Freud, the stranger the dream, the more meaning it makes. The fact is that in dreams any prohibitions and censorship disappear, defense mechanisms are turned off, everything that has accumulated there comes out of the unconscious. However, not all so simple. True experiences, desires, needs in dreams are shown by symbols. And these are the symbols that the consciousness of a particular person will accept. That is, a certain “filter” is preserved even in the realm of the unconscious – sleep. To immerse yourself in the art of reading dreams, study S. Freud's book “The Interpretation of Dreams.”

Using these methods, you can look into a person’s unconscious, identify repressed desires, emotions and memories, understand the motives of actions and correct behavior.

Important! Do not confuse psychoanalysis with psychotherapy. The psychoanalyst is largely responsible for ensuring that the person speaks freely and finds the origins of the problems themselves, as well as their solution. The psychoanalyst guides, but does not give direct instructions and advice.

Introduction to Psychoanalysis

1.2. The life path and work of S. Freud

Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in the small Moravian town of Freiberg in the family of a poor wool merchant. In 1860, the family moved to Vienna, where the future famous scientist lived for about 80 years. There were 8 children in the large family, but only Sigmund stood out for his exceptional abilities, amazingly sharp mind and passion for reading. Therefore, his parents sought to create better conditions for him. While other children learned their lessons by candlelight, Sigmund was given a kerosene lamp. So that the children would not disturb him, they were not allowed to play music in front of him. He graduated from high school with honors at the age of 17 and entered the famous University of Vienna to study medicine.

8-year-old S. Freud with his father

16-year-old S. Freud with his mother

While studying at the university, Freud joined the student union for the study of history, politics, and philosophy. However, of particular interest to him were the natural sciences, the achievements of which produced a real revolution in minds in the middle of the last century, laying the foundation for modern knowledge about the body and living nature. From the great discoveries of this era - the law of conservation of energy and the law of evolution of the organic world established by Darwin - Freud drew the conviction that scientific knowledge is knowledge of the causes of phenomena under the strict control of experience. These laws served as a kind of support for Freud when he later moved on to the study of human behavior. He considered the body to be a kind of apparatus charged with energy, which is discharged either in normal or pathological reactions. Unlike physical apparatus, an organism is a product of the evolution of the entire human race and the life of an individual. These principles extended to the psyche. The psyche was considered as an energy resource of the individual and as the development of this individual, having a memory of the history of mankind and its own memory of its childhood. This is a kind of consciousness and awareness that a person belongs to a class and is an integral part of it. Thus, Freud was brought up on sciences such as biology and physics. He did not limit himself to describing phenomena, but looked for their causes and laws (this approach is known as determinism, and in all subsequent work Freud is a determinist). He followed these ideals when he moved into the field of psychology. His teacher was the outstanding European physiologist Ernst Brücke. Under his leadership, student Freud worked at the Vienna Institute of Physiology, spending many hours at a microscope. In his old age, being an internationally recognized psychologist, he wrote to one of his friends that he had never been as happy as during the years spent in the laboratory studying the structure of nerve cells in the spinal cord of animals. Freud always worked with concentration, without being distracted by everyday problems, completely devoting himself to scientific pursuits. Many at that time believed that people for Freud were just rabbits that he constantly monitored. However, it is not. Freud wanted to know the essence of man. Understand how he thinks, what his views are, why and why. He was a true scientist who was interested in how the world and the people in it worked.

He intended to become a professional scientist. Unfortunately, Brücke did not have a vacancy at the physiological institute. And Freud’s financial situation worsened due to the upcoming wedding to Martha Verney, who was as poor as he was. I had to leave science and look for a means of subsistence. There was one way out - to become a practicing doctor, although he did not feel any attraction to this profession. He decided to go into private practice as a neurologist. To do this, he first had to go to work in a clinic, since he had no medical experience. At the clinic, Freud thoroughly mastered the methods of diagnosing and treating children with brain damage (patients with infantile paralysis), as well as various speech disorders (aphasia). His publications about this become known in scientific and medical circles.

Freud's family. Z. Freud in the center, behind his mother, 1878

Freud gains a reputation as a highly qualified neurologist. He treated his patients using the methods of physiotherapy accepted at that time. It was believed that since the nervous system is a material organ, the painful changes that occur in it must have material causes. Therefore, they should be eliminated through physical procedures, influencing the patient with heat, water, electricity, etc. Very soon, however, Freud began to experience dissatisfaction with these physiotherapeutic procedures. The effectiveness of the treatment left much to be desired, and he thought about the possibility of using other methods, in particular hypnosis, using which some doctors achieved good results. One of these successfully practicing doctors was Joseph Breuer, who began to patronize the young Freud in everything (1884). They jointly discussed the causes of their patients’ illnesses and the prospects for treatment. The patients who approached them were mainly women suffering from hysteria. The disease manifested itself in various symptoms - fears (phobias), loss of sensitivity, aversion to food, split personality, hallucinations, spasms, etc.

At Clark University, in America, after S. Freud gave a lecture on psychoanalysis, 1909.

At the end of 1882, Freud became acquainted with the story of Anna O., Breuer's patient. This girl lost her father, after which she developed hysterical symptoms: paralysis of the limbs, impaired skin sensitivity, speech and vision disorders. In addition, she had a split personality. The transition from one personality to another was accompanied by self-hypnosis and stories about her daily life. During one of these conditions, she spoke in detail about how she developed one of the symptoms. When she returned to her normal state, she suddenly discovered that this symptom had disappeared. This event prompted Breuer to create a new method of treatment, which he called cathartic: he immersed the patient in a hypnotic state and asked him to talk in full detail about all the events accompanying the appearance of the symptom.

Despite his success in treating Anna O., Breuer suddenly refuses to continue working with her and hastily leaves with his wife for Venice. The reason for this is the passionate feelings that suddenly awakened towards him in the patient. When he refuses further sessions, Anna experiences a severe hysterical crisis, symbolizing childbirth. It turned out that even during treatment with Breuer she developed an imaginary pregnancy, which for some reason was not noticed by the doctor. Breuer is shocked and confused, he cannot find an explanation for this incident.

The case of Anna O. awakened Freud's deep interest in this disease. In 1885, Freud learned about the unusual methods of treating mental illnesses by the French doctor Charcot, nicknamed by his contemporaries “the king of neuroses.” Most of this scientist's work is devoted to the study of hysteria. To study the nature of this disease and its treatment, Charcot, like Breuer, uses hypnosis.

French doctor J. Charcot

Famous patient Anna O.

The French school of neuropathology had rich clinical material and extraordinary successes in the study of hypnosis and hysteria, but in Vienna these studies were met with rather skepticism. Therefore, Freud decides to go to Paris to personally undergo training with Charcot. Charcot paid great attention to the patient's fantasy world; he argued that the causes of hysteria lie in the psyche, and not in physiology. In one of his conversations with Freud, he notes that, in his opinion, the causes of a neurotic’s illness lie in the characteristics of his sex life. These ideas, compared with the observations of Freud himself, as well as with the memorable case of Anna O., lead him to believe that there is a special sphere of the psyche, hidden from consciousness, but which has a great influence on our lives. Moreover, this sphere consists primarily of sexual drives and desires, which manifest themselves in one way or another during treatment.

Hypnotic session on a hysterical patient conducted by Charcot

Before leaving for Paris, Freud's fiancée, Martha, finds him engaged in a strange activity: he burns his letters and papers in the stove. He explains to her that he wants to make it difficult for his biographers to work, since he has a pre-existing dislike for them. To her objection that he will not have any biographers, he confidently replies that great people always have biographers... This scene is described by Sartre in his film script “Freud”. When this script was written, Freud's personality had already become legendary, and psychoanalysis acquired the force of one of the new mythologies of the 20th century. It is difficult to say with certainty whether this conversation actually took place, but there is no doubt that Freud believed in his special destiny, and this belief gave him perseverance and determination during the most difficult periods of his life.

Together with I. Breuer, S. Freud continued the study of hysteria and its treatment using the cathartic method. In 1895, they published the book “Studies on Hysteria,” which for the first time talks about the relationship between the emergence of neurosis and unsatisfied drives and emotions repressed from consciousness. Freud is also interested in another state of the human psyche, similar to hypnotic - dreaming. In the same year, he discovers the basic formula for the secret of dreams: each of them is the fulfillment of a wish. This thought struck him so much that he even jokingly suggested nailing a memorial plaque in the place where it happened. Five years later, he outlined these ideas in his book The Interpretation of Dreams, which he consistently considered his best work.

Developing his ideas, Freud concludes that the main force that directs all human actions, thoughts and desires is libido energy, that is, the power of sexual desire. The human unconscious is filled with this energy and therefore it is in constant conflict with consciousness - the embodiment of moral norms and moral principles. Thus, he comes to a description of the hierarchical structure of the psyche, consisting of three “levels”: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious. The preconscious consists of those desires and thoughts that were conscious, but were repressed; they can be quite easily returned to the area of consciousness. The unconscious is made up of natural forces and instincts, the awareness of which is very difficult. In addition, Freud identifies three qualities of the psyche, three “actors” present in each of us, between whom confrontation constantly occurs. These characters are the Super-ego, the ego and the id. The first of them is the focus of moral norms and stereotypes dictated by society. It is a world of chaos, natural forces and drives. The I that finds itself between them is forced to reconcile the demands of one and the other, also taking into account the conditions of the external world. Freud wrote that “the Ego, driven by the Id, constrained by the Super-Ego, repelled by reality” is forced to make all its efforts to harmonize the relations between these three “masters”.

Z. Freud with his bride M. Bernays, 1884

Tabor Street, district of Vienna, where S. Freud lived from 1891 to 1938.

S. Freud's discoveries were very coldly received by puritanical Vienna. He himself wrote about this: “The attitude towards them was negative, imbued with a feeling of contempt, compassion or superiority.” Scientifically accurate descriptions of the “other side” of the human soul, the play of instincts and unconscious elements, gave the prim scientists the impression of something base and obscene. Freud's theory was accepted as “a joke in bad taste” (P. Janet). But Freud remains true to the truth of scientific facts, maintaining rigor and impartiality. He doesn't make any compromises. From 1896 to 1902 Freud finds himself in complete isolation. Even his mentor Breuer turns away from him, not wanting to harm his career. He devotes his years of solitude to continuing his research and receives new confirmation of the truth of his views. The emptiness that reigned around him was met with great courage and calm; later he calls this period “a wonderful, heroic time.” Despite the negative reaction of the intellectual elite, Freud's extraordinary ideas are gradually gaining acceptance among young doctors in Vienna. In 1902, students and like-minded people gathered around Freud and a psychoanalytic circle was formed. During this period, Freud wrote “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1904), “Wit and Its Relation to the Unconscious” (1905), “Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis” (1909). In 1907, he established contact with the school of psychiatrists from Zurich and the young Swiss doctor C. G. Jung became his student. Freud pinned great hopes on this man; he considered him the best successor to his brainchild, capable of leading the psychoanalytic community. In 1909, the two of them were invited to the USA to give lectures, where they performed with great success.

Psychoanalytic couch of S. Freud in Vienna

However, C. G. Jung is bold and independent in his judgments, and he enters into an argument with his teacher. As a result of his own research and observations, Jung cannot agree that the main force driving the will and desires of all humanity is the energy of sexual attraction, designated by Freud as “libido.” Jung also uses this term, but he understands by it an energy of a more general, global nature, a certain fundamental “life force” as such. A relationship that began with mutual admiration ends in litigation. At Freud's request, Jung was “excommunicated” from psychoanalysis and forced to name his method of psychotherapy differently: “analytical psychology.”

Z. Freud with his mother Amalia and wife Martha Bernays

Z. Freud is still surrounded by students, but in none of them does he see a worthy successor. He builds the theory of psychoanalysis on the model of natural science, with all its inherent rigor. That is why he demands from his students that they comply with these strict rules and follow clear principles and patterns. But the most talented students leave him one after another, creating their own directions. Despite all the blows of fate, Freud does not lose hope. He ends one of his books from this period of his life with the wish that “fate will grant an easy lift to all those who have become uncomfortable in the underworld of psychoanalysis, while the rest may be free to complete the work in its depths.”

Z. Freud continues to work actively, psychoanalysis is becoming widely known throughout Europe, the USA, and Russia. In 1909 he gave lectures in the USA, and in 1910 the First International Congress on Psychoanalysis met in Nuremberg. In 1915–1917 he lectures in his homeland, at the University of Vienna. His new works are being published, where he continues his research into the secrets of the unconscious. Now his ideas go beyond just medicine and psychology, but also concern the laws of development of culture and society. Many young doctors come to study psychoanalysis directly with its founder, including S. Spielrein, L. Andreas-Salome, Nikolai Osipov, Moses Wulf from Russia.

From 1910 to 1930 psychoanalysis was one of the most important components of Russian culture. In 1914, Freud wrote: “In Russia, psychoanalysis is known and widespread; almost all my books, like those of other adherents of psychoanalysis, have been translated into Russian.” The Russian Psychoanalytic Society included such bright psychologists as N. E. Osipov, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria. However, since the mid-20s. some of them were forced to change the topic of their research, abandoning psychoanalysis, others had to continue working outside their homeland. Further development of psychoanalysis in Russia became impossible. The fate of S. Spielrein eloquently testifies to this. Returning to Russia in 1923, full of romantic hopes, she tries to continue her psychoanalytic practice, but ends her life tragically, alone and in poverty.

In the early 20s. Fate again subjects Freud to severe trials: he develops jaw cancer caused by an addiction to cigars. The alarming socio-political situation is giving rise to mass unrest and unrest. Freud, remaining faithful to the natural scientific tradition, increasingly turns to topics of mass psychology, the psychological structure of religious and ideological dogmas. Continuing to explore the abyss of the unconscious, he now comes to the conclusion that two equally strong principles govern a person: the desire for life (Eros) and the desire for death (Thanatos). The instinct of destruction, the forces of aggression and violence manifest themselves too clearly around us not to notice them.

Urn with the ashes of S. Freud in London

In 1933, fascism came to power in Germany and Freud's books, along with many others that were not acceptable to the new authorities, were set on fire. To this Freud remarks: “What progress we have made! In the Middle Ages they would have burned me; nowadays they are content to burn my books.” After the capture of Austria by the Nazis, Freud finds himself in the hands of the Gestapo and only the Queen of England, by paying a ransom for his life, manages to save him from imminent death. Freud and his family emigrate to England, where they spend the rest of their days. Freud spent 78 years of his life in Vienna and gave the world psychoanalysis. In old age, he was forced to leave his homeland and, living in a foreign land, watch how he was ignored in the city that he glorified throughout the world no less than his contemporary Johann Strauss. However, wherever Freud was, the whole world knew about him, and fame and recognition became his companions.

Russian biographers about Z. Freud (“Rossiyskaya Gazeta”, 2003; “Arguments and Facts”, 2006; “Secrets of the 20th Century”, 2005)

As you know, the father of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, whose birthday falls on May 6, put sexuality at the forefront of all human actions. In 1886, Freud married the granddaughter of the chief rabbi of Hamburg, Martha Bernays. In the first 8 years of marriage, his wife gave birth to three sons and three daughters. After the birth of his sixth child, the happy father stopped sleeping with his wife. One of his passionate fans, getting closer to him, exclaimed: “How could such a man write so many sexy books?”

Z. Freud tried to use fashionable at the end of the 19th century. hypnosis, but soon gave up: since childhood I hated looking people in the eyes. Then, out of grief and financial problems, Freud invented psychoanalysis. It was Freud who came up with the idea of putting the patient on the couch and sitting at the head of the bed. Let the patient say what he wants. This is the method of “free association”, which facilitates “access to the subconscious”. To facilitate access to the patient's wallet, Freud invented another method. “Payment for therapy,” he wrote, “must have a significant impact on the patient’s pocket, otherwise the therapy goes poorly.” A session with Freud cost 40 Austrian crowns - like an expensive suit.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Freud hit the mark. Disillusioned first with religion and then with philosophy, European society was in a serious moral crisis. Then a doctor from Vienna appeared and explained that the solution to their problems should be sought not in the soul, not in the head, but below. It has become fashionable to be treated by Freud, even if nothing hurts. Moreover, it has become a symbol of social status.

In 1902, students and like-minded people gathered around Freud. In 1910, the First International Congress of Psychoanalysts was held in Nuremberg. Gradually, Freud shifted his gaze from specific patients to more general topics, and began to try on the laws of psychoanalysis to cultural and historical events. In general, “life is good.”

Trouble came from unexpected places. Freud was a passionate smoker from a young age. In his mature and well-fed years, he smoked 20 thick cigarettes a day. In the early 20s. Freud was diagnosed with jaw cancer. In April 1923, he underwent an unsuccessful operation - he had to live with a lower jaw prosthesis and the same cancer. A huge non-healing ulcer in the mouth, among other inconveniences, caused a terrible stench of decaying flesh. Because of this, in the last years of his life, Freud preferred to communicate with people through an opaque curtain. In London emigration (he miraculously managed to escape from the Nazis, but four of his sisters died in a concentration camp), when suffering from a cancerous tumor became unbearable, Freud, at his request, was given a lethal injection of morphine, and on September 23, 1939 he died.

Freud's complexes were exposed by his wife.

If it were not for Martha, the wife of the famous Sigmund Freud, there would, in essence, not have been the pioneer of psychoanalysis. Without her revelations, the popular opinion would continue to exist: that Freud, who explained the most secret passions of people, was himself an impassive person. Alas!

S. Freud's wife - Martha Bernays

And biographers established this. It was they, more precisely, who began to bring Martha, who had lived with Sigmund for more than half a century, out of the shadows. While living with him, she tried not to be exposed, believing that the best woman is the one about whom people talk very little. Scientists led by Katja Berchling-Fischer have found hundreds of letters written to Sigmund Martha. According to the prestigious Polish magazine Przekruj, it will take at least five years to process the collected materials, only after which we can count on the appearance of fundamental work. In the meantime, Katya Berchling-Fischer has released only fragments, but they are enough to present an extraordinary woman who inspired Freud both in intimate matters and in scientific research.

When Sigmund first saw 20-year-old Martha Bernays, he was struck by thunder. And she, charming, energetic, educated, fell in love with him at first sight. Timid, unsure of himself, Sigmund did not at all look like a conqueror of hearts. He admitted that when he was a teenager, he was impressed by a certain Gisela, but that passion was, alas, unrequited. I regretted that my experience with women in my youth was limited.

Soon Martha and Sigmund became engaged, but did it in secret. And not without reason: the daughter of the chief rabbi of Hamburg, Emilia, Martha’s mother, opposed the marriage with Sigmund, the son of a Jewish merchant, who had neither property, nor a good position, nor a solid position in the community, but atheism was overflowing. But the daughter rejected the Hasidic mother’s arguments, and she made a strong-willed decision to move with the children from Vienna to Hamburg. Did not help. Martha found the outlet for her passion in letters—two or three every day. Freud answered also often. “My beloved girl,” he wrote, “you are pure happiness for me. I have no desire to live without you. I would like to get a piece of the world just for you, so that we can rejoice in it together.” He described how their future home would be furnished, not even forgetting about the paintings on the walls. “My beloved,” Martha answered passionately, “I couldn’t sleep with you half the night... I want to be what you want me to be. Just love me a little more passionately.”

The letters indicate that Martha was deeply involved in Freud's emotional and professional development. He, on the contrary, used her like a guinea pig, for example, in his experiments with cocaine, then a poorly understood substance. Having discovered that cocaine gave him enthusiasm and courage, Freud sent his betrothed several doses. However, Martha replied that she did not need cocaine, but nevertheless she tried it and really experienced a pleasant sensation. Freud admitted that cocaine could be used as a painkiller. I even wrote an article on this topic, but the desire to be with Martha did not allow me to continue research with this substance. They were taken up by one of his colleagues, who discovered that cocaine was the only painkiller during eye surgery. This brought him both fame and wealth. Freud gallantly insisted that the years spent next to Martha would mean much more to him than the success that he could achieve at that time. If it were not for Martha, Freud might have remained in medicine and would never have taken up psychoanalysis.

After three years of separation, Freud invited Martha to start a family and move to Vienna with him. His lover agreed to do this, which prompted Freud to make serious self-sacrifice: he neglected his university career and opened a neurological office. Four years after their first meeting, they got married. The ceremony was modest. Freud agreed to a Jewish wedding, but then, during the marriage, religion had no right of access to their home.

Freud was unusually secretive about marital relations. His unromantic (in letters) statements, like “I really had a good life with my wife,” say little. First of all, I am very grateful to her for her noble character traits, for her successful children, for the fact that she was completely normal and rarely got sick.”

Concept

We have already said a lot about Freud’s theory, but all of this is somehow generalized, mixed up (new and old). What is the concept of Freud's original theory of psychoanalysis? Let us outline the main provisions (features) of psychoanalysis:

All psychological problems of the individual are caused by the conflict between the conscious and unconscious.
Physiological needs suppress the needs of higher levels. As Freud said, “at the basis of all our actions are the desire to become great and the sexual desire.”
Every incident in a person's life has its consequences.
Every action has an obvious or hidden motive, which is associated with a person’s previous experience.
The individual development of a subject is determined by the structure of the personality, childhood and youth experience.
The psyche is a complex mechanism consisting of three levels: It, I, Super-ego. It is important to study all this in a comprehensive manner and look for the causes of psychological problems in the present at the level of the It (unconscious).

In the theory of psychoanalysis, the subject of study is unconscious motives leading to mental disorders.

Now let's move on to an analysis of the types of psychoanalysis.

Sigmund Freud psychoanalysis

The main regulatory mechanism of human behavior is consciousness. S. Freud discovered that behind the veil of consciousness there is hidden a deep, “raging” layer of powerful aspirations, aspirations, and desires that are not realized by the individual. As a practicing physician, Freud was faced with the serious problem of complications of existence due to the presence of unconscious worries and motives. Often this “unconscious” becomes the cause of neuropsychiatric disorders. This discovery prompted him to search for tools that would help relieve patients from the confrontation between the “pronounced” consciousness and hidden, unconscious motives. Thus, Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis was born - a method of healing the soul.

Not limiting himself to the study and treatment of neuropaths, as a result of hard work to recreate their mental health, S. Freud formed a theory that interpreted the experiences and behavioral reactions of sick individuals and healthy individuals.

Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis is known as classical psychoanalysis. It has gained enormous popularity in the West.

The concept of “psychoanalysis” can be represented in three meanings: psychopathology and personality theory, a method for studying an individual’s unconscious thoughts and feelings, a method of treating personality disorders.

Freud's classic psychoanalysis demonstrated a completely new system in psychology, which is often called the psychoanalytic revolution.

Sigmund Freud's philosophy of psychoanalysis: he argued that the hypothesis of unconscious processes of the psyche, the recognition of the doctrine of resistance and repression, the Oedipus complex and sexual development form the fundamental elements of psychoanalytic theory. In other words, no doctor can be considered a psychoanalyst without agreeing with the listed basic premises of psychoanalysis.

Freud's psychoanalysis is the basis for understanding many processes in the social mind, mass behavior, individual preferences in the field of politics, culture, etc. From the position of psychoanalytic teaching, the modern subject lives in a world of intense mental motives, is overwhelmed by suppressed aspirations and inclinations, which leads him to television screens, serial films and other forms of culture that give a sublimation effect.

Freud identified two fundamental antagonistic driving forces, namely "thanatos" and "eros" (for example, life and death). All processes of a destructive nature in the subject and society are based on similar oppositely directed motives - “striving for life” and “craving for death”. Freud viewed Eros in a broad sense as an aspiration towards life and gave this concept a central place.

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis gave science an understanding of such an important phenomenon of the individual psyche as “libido” or, in other words, sexual desire. Freud's central idea was the idea of unconscious sexual behavior, which is the basis of the subject's behavior. Behind most manifestations of fantasies and creative potential, sexual issues are predominantly hidden. Any creativity was considered by Freud to be a symbolic fulfillment of unfulfilled desires. However, there is no need to exaggerate this concept of Freud. He suggested that behind every image there must be an intimate hidden meaning, but in principle it is undeniable.

Introduction to Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud is often referred to as the concept of the unconscious psyche. The core of psychoanalytic teaching is the study of the active affective complex, which is formed as a result of repressed traumatic experiences from consciousness. The strength of this theory has always been considered that it managed to focus attention on the unimaginable complexity of the affective side of the individual, on the problem of clearly experienced and hidden drives, on the conflicts that arise between various motives, on the tragic confrontation between the spheres of “desired” and “ought”. Neglect of unconscious but real mental processes, as a determinant of behavior, in the field of education inevitably leads to a deep distortion of the entire image of the subject’s inner life, which in turn creates an obstacle to the formation of deeper knowledge about the nature and tools of spiritual creativity, norms of behavior, personal structure and activity.

Psychoanalytic teaching focuses on the motives and processes of the unconscious and is a technique that forces the unconscious to be explained in the language of consciousness, brings it to the surface in order to find the cause of the individual’s suffering and internal confrontation to cope with it.

Freud discovered the so-called “mental underground,” when an individual notices the best, praises it, but strives for the bad. The problem of the unconscious is acute in individual psychology, social life and social relationships. As a result of the influence of certain factors, a misunderstanding of the surrounding conditions and one’s own “I” appears, which contributes to a sharp pathologization of social behavior.

In a general sense, psychoanalytic theory is considered not only a scientific concept, but a philosophy, a therapeutic practice related to the healing of the psyche of individuals. It is not limited only to experimental scientific knowledge and consistently moves closer to humanistically oriented theories. However, many scientists considered psychoanalytic theory a myth.

For example, Erich Fromm considered psychoanalysis limited due to its biological determination of personal development and considered the role of sociological factors, political, economic, religious and cultural reasons in personal formation.

Freud developed a radical theory in which he argued for the predominant role of repression and the fundamental importance of the unconscious. Human nature has always believed in reason as the apogee of human experience. Z. Freud saved humanity from this misconception. He forced the scientific community to doubt the inviolability of the rational. Why you can completely rely on reason. Does he always bring comfort with him and free him from torment? And is torment less grandiose in terms of its impact on the individual than the ability of reason?

S. Freud substantiated that a significant portion of rational thinking only masks real judgments and feelings, in other words, serves to hide the truth. Therefore, to treat neurotic conditions, Freud began to use the method of free association, which consisted of patients in a supine, relaxed state saying whatever comes to their mind, and it does not matter whether such thoughts are absurd or unpleasant, obscene in nature. Powerful impulses of an emotional nature carry away uncontrolled thinking in the direction of mental conflict. Freud argued that a random first thought represents a forgotten continuation of a memory. However, later, he made a reservation that this is not always the case. Sometimes the thought that arises in the patient is not identical to the forgotten ideas, due to the patient’s state of mind.

Also, Freud argued that dreams reveal the presence of intense mental life in the depths of the brain. And directly analyzing a dream involves searching for hidden content in it, a deformed unconscious truth that hides in every dream. And the more intricate the dream, the greater the significance of the hidden content for the subject. Such a phenomenon is called resistance in the language of psychoanalysis, and they are expressed even when the individual who has seen the dream does not want to interpret the night images that inhabit his mind. With the help of resistances, the unconscious defines barriers to protecting itself. Dreams express hidden desires through symbols. Hidden thoughts, transforming into symbols, become acceptable to consciousness, as a result of which it becomes possible for them to overcome censorship.

Freud considered anxiety as a synonym for the affective state of the psyche - fear, which was given a special section in the work introduction to psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud. In general, the psychoanalytic concept distinguishes three forms of anxiety, namely realistic, neurotic and moral. All three forms aim to warn about a threat or danger, develop a behavioral strategy, or adapt to threatening circumstances. In situations of internal confrontation, the “I” forms psychological defenses, which are special types of unconscious mental activity that allow, at least temporarily, to alleviate confrontation, relieve tension, and get rid of anxiety by distorting the actual situation, modifying the attitude towards threatening circumstances, and substituting the perception of reality. in certain living conditions.

What directions (types) of psychoanalysis exist today?

In modern theories of psychoanalysis, the emphasis has shifted from sexuality. Psychologists consider not only this need as the cause of all troubles, but also other unmet needs.

For example, people with a heightened and unsatisfied need for power often become tyrants at home or at work. People who lack warm social contact surround themselves with animals. People who cannot or are afraid to have children, but want it, also direct their energy towards animals, for example, cats. Women who cannot succeed as professionals find themselves in raising children.

Classical Freudian psychoanalysis is one of the types of this teaching known to psychology. There are other schools (directions) of psychoanalysis. Let's briefly highlight them:

Ego psychology. If Freud paid more attention to the Id, then here all attention is focused on the Ego (I), that is, the conscious part of the personality.
Object Relations Theory. This theory is based on the proposition that the psyche is a system of internal objects that are a reflection of people and situations from the outside world. The specifics of relationships with people in the present and the life scenario are determined by the childhood experience of the subject. That is, in adulthood a person reproduces what he was used to in childhood.
M. Klein School. The psychoanalyst paid more attention to child psychoanalysis, in particular to the analysis of the Oedipus complex. She considered love and aggression as the main driving forces of the psyche. The first one heals, the second one splits the psyche.
Structural psychoanalysis by J. Lacan. The psychoanalyst viewed a person strictly as a subject and proposed solving psychological problems through speech. He considered the basis of personality to be a tandem of three elements: imaginary (a person’s idea of himself based on knowledge of other people), symbolic (search for differences in himself and others), real (situation, place where the individual first met another). The psychoanalyst depicted this as a symbol of three connected rings. If even one ring is opened, the mental balance of the individual will be disrupted.
Interpersonal psychoanalysis (G.S. Sullivan, Clara Thompson). Attention is focused not on the analysis of personality, but on the analysis of interpersonal relationships. It was this element that psychoanalysts considered the most important and significant in the mental development of the subject.

There are other modern areas of psychoanalysis, but these are the most in demand.

Modern psychoanalysis

Despite the fact that many years have passed since the time of S. Freud, and psychology and psychiatry do not stand still, the basic terms of psychoanalysis, such as the unconscious, ego, sublimation, have grown into our lives and are even often used in everyday life. This is a rather complex theory that is applied strictly individually and cannot give a predictable result. According to the philosopher K. Popper, psychoanalysis cannot be considered a strictly scientific concept, since it cannot be refuted, but at the same time, it can be used to explain absolutely all current events and people’s actions.

Despite the fact that Freud's theory has often served as an object for jokes and anecdotes due to the overly dominant concept of sexuality in it, many psychotherapists still use it to this day, believing that there is a lot of rationality in it. “I wanted to say one thing, but said another – and this is no coincidence.”

Many psychologists still use psychoanalytic theory to explain adultery. When one of the spouses says that he loves the other, but at the same time cheats. Z. Freud would say that this may well be the case, since, in his opinion, such concepts as love and desire are different and it happens that they do not coincide. You can love one person and desire another and vice versa.

Modern psychoanalysis poses questions where they have not arisen before and obtains answers that previously could not have occurred to the patient, much less his analyst. The psychoanalytic direction indicates that current society is too fixated on the concept of “norm”. A person is afraid to go beyond the boundaries set by society and appear abnormal to others. We have all been told since childhood that mistakes need to be corrected. And psychoanalysts say that a mistake can sometimes bring good luck and happiness in the future.

Quote Recognizing a problem is half the success in solving it.

Sigmund Freud

The information presented in this material is for informational purposes only and does not replace professional advice from a physician. If you need help overcoming psychological problems, consult a specialist!

Author: Lepinskaya Violetta Olegovna

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Types of psychological counseling

How psychoanalysis influenced the development of psychology

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis contributed to the development of psychology. Psychoanalysis made a real revolution in the world of psychotherapy and psychiatry. This theory was reflected in the works of other psychologists (representatives of psychoanalysis): A. Freud, D. Winnicott, H. Hartmann, M. Mahler, E. Glover, E. Erikson, M. Klein and others. Direct followers of Freud are Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Otto Rank, H. Hartman, E. Chris, Anna Freud (daughter of the famous psychoanalyst).

What is the significance of psychoanalysis for fundamental and practical psychology? After Freud's discoveries, researchers began to pay more attention to the topic of defense mechanisms of the psyche, stages of mental development of the individual, levels of consciousness, and psychosomatic disorders. Dreams received special attention. Before the publication of the book “The Interpretation of Dreams” by S. Freud, they were not given such importance.

Interesting! Freud's teachings even influenced cinema. Alfred Hitchcock, Federico Fellini, Michelangelo Antonioni, Paolo Pasolini were inspired by his works.

Psychoanalytic direction

The most powerful and diverse movement in modern psychology is the psychoanalytic direction, the ancestor of which is Freud's psychoanalysis. The most famous works in the psychoanalytic direction are individual psychoanalysis by Adler and analytical psychoanalysis by Jung.

Alfred Adler and Carl Jung supported the theory of the unconscious in their writings, but sought to limit the role of intimate impulses in the interpretation of the human psyche. As a result, the unconscious acquired new content. The content of the unconscious, according to A. Adler, was the desire for power as an instrument that compensates for feelings of inferiority.

Jung's psychoanalysis in brief: G. Jung established the concept of “collective unconscious”. He considered the unconscious psyche to be saturated with structures that cannot be acquired individually, but are a gift from distant ancestors, while Freud believed that the unconscious psyche of a subject can include phenomena that were previously repressed from consciousness.

Jung further develops the concept of two poles of the unconscious - collective and personal. The superficial layer of the psyche, covering all contents that are connected with personal experience, namely forgotten memories, repressed impulses and desires, forgotten traumatic impressions, Jung called the personal unconscious. It depends on the subject’s personal history and can awaken in fantasies and dreams. He called the collective unconscious the superpersonal unconscious psyche, including drives, instincts, which in the individual represent a natural creation, and archetypes in which the human soul is found. The collective unconscious contains national and racial beliefs, myths and prejudices, as well as a certain inheritance that was acquired from animals by people. Instincts and archetypes play the role of regulator of an individual’s inner life. Instinct determines the specific behavior of the subject, and the archetype determines the specific formation of the conscious contents of the psyche.

Jung identified two human types: extroverted and introverted. The first type is characterized by an outward focus and passion for social activity, while the second is characterized by an internal focus and focus on personal desires. Subsequently, Jung called such drives of the subject the term “libido” just like Freud, but at the same time Jung did not identify the concept of “libido” with the sexual instinct.

Thus, Jung's psychoanalysis is a complement to classical psychoanalysis. Jung's philosophy of psychoanalysis had a rather serious influence on the further development of psychology and psychotherapy, along with anthropology, ethnography, philosophy and esotericism.

Adler, transforming the original postulate of psychoanalysis, identified a feeling of inferiority, caused, in particular, by physical defects, as a factor in personal development. As a response to such sensations, there is a desire to compensate for it in order to gain superiority over others. The source of neuroses, in his opinion, is hidden in an inferiority complex. He fundamentally disagreed with the statements of Jung and Freud about the prevalence of personal unconscious instincts in human behavior and his personality, which contrast the individual with society and alienate him from it.

Adler's psychoanalysis in brief: Adler argued that a sense of community with society, stimulating social relationships and orientation towards other subjects, is the main force that determines human behavior and determines the life of an individual, and not at all innate archetypes or instincts.

However, there is something in common that connects the three concepts of individual psychoanalysis by Adler, analytical psychoanalytic theory of Jung and classical psychoanalysis of Freud - all of these concepts argued that the individual has some internal nature, unique to him alone, which affects personal formation. Only Freud gave a decisive role to sexual motives, Adler noted the role of social interests, and Jung attached decisive importance to primary types of thinking.

Another convinced follower of Freud's psychoanalytic theory was E. Berne. In the course of further development of the ideas of classical psychoanalysis and the development of methods for treating neuropsychiatric illnesses, Berne focused attention on the so-called “transactions” that form the foundation of interpersonal relationships. Psychoanalysis Berne: He considered three ego states, namely child, adult and parent. Berne suggested that during any interaction with the environment, the subject is always in one of the listed states.

Introduction to Psychoanalysis Bern - this work was created to explain the dynamics of the individual’s psyche and analyze the problems experienced by patients. Unlike fellow psychoanalysts, Berne believed it was important to bring the analysis of personality problems to the life history of her parents and other ancestors.

An introduction to psychoanalysis by Berne is devoted to the analysis of the types of “games” used by individuals in daily communication.

Criticism

Freud's theory immediately attracted public attention. But it cannot be said that it was exclusively positive - there were many critics. And until now, Freud's teachings are subject to critical analysis. Here's what he's criticized for:

too much emphasis on human sexuality;
a strange attitude towards childhood sexuality (some researchers find the idea of the Oedipus complex wild);
there is a possibility that the client’s condition will worsen during psychoanalysis (based on a 1994 study that proved that behavioral therapy is more effective than psychoanalysis);
it is difficult to test the theory experimentally, since too much attention is paid to the human unconscious;
there is too much subjectiveness in theory and psychoanalysis as an applied method of psychotherapy;
Freud’s painful desire to look for mental pathology in everything (there are cases when Freud mistook the somatic problems of patients for mental disorders, for example, he diagnosed a patient with toothache as “Hysterical neurosis”).

Some psychologists still consider Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis a pseudoscience. They doubt its validity, reliability and effectiveness.

Interesting! Freud's theory causes admiration or indignation, but it does not leave anyone indifferent.

Why is psychoanalysis criticized?

Initially, Freud’s developments were accepted by Kudryashov I.S. Psychoanalysis and its prerequisites. Journal of Siberian Medical Sciences. with hostility, and his concept was accompanied by scandalous fame. In particular, Grünbaum A. opposed it. One hundred years of psychoanalysis: results and prospects. Independent Psychiatric Journal. Karl Jaspers, Arthur Kronfeld, Karl Popper and Kurt Schneider.

Although today the concept of psychoanalysis has many supporters, it is subject to serious criticism. Opponents of psychoanalysis doubt its effectiveness, and some researchers even declare Tallis RC Burying Freud. The Lancet. Freudian concept of pseudoscience.

A hot topic of criticism has been the concentration of psychoanalysis on sexual motives. For example, a number of researchers believe Kraepelin E. Introduction to the Psychiatric Clinic. M. 2004. that “rough digging into the sexual life” of patients can lead to adverse consequences for the psyche.

Disputed Kupfersmid J. Does the Oedipus complex exist? Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training. and Freud's concept of the Oedipus complex.

There is also Svartberg, M., Stiles, T.C. Comparative effects of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy: a meta-analysis. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology. doubts about the effectiveness of psychoanalytic therapy. In 1994, a group of German scientists conducted Hoffmann-Richter U. Psychotherapie im Wandel - Von der Konfession zur Profession. Eine Auseinandersetzung mit einem bemerkenswerten Buch von Klaus Grawe, Ruth Donati und Friederike Bernauer. Psychiatric Praxis. study of 897 works on psychoanalysis. Scientists have concluded that long-term visits to a psychoanalyst are not effective for the patient and that psychoanalytic therapy increases the risk of worsening his condition. Only some mild disorders, according to the article, partially recede after psychoanalysis sessions. At the same time, behavioral therapy was twice as effective.

Noted Ackerman CE Psychoanalysis: A Brief History of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory. Positive Psychology. also that the hypotheses and provisions of psychoanalysis are difficult to test experimentally, since this approach pays too little attention to the conscious in human behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory has also been criticized for its roots in Freud's sexist views, its inapplicability to non-Western cultures, and its excessive tendency to reduce everything to pathologies.

Opponents also criticize the methods of psychoanalysis. For example, psychologist Burres Frederick Skinner considered McLeod S. Psychoanalysis. Simply Psychology. The "ink blot" method is subjective and unscientific.

In addition, Freud himself is reproached by A. M. Rutkevich. How Freud adjusted the facts to his theory. Psychoanalysis. Origins and first stages of development: Course of lectures. M. 1997. in manipulation of facts. In 1972, Canadian psychiatrist and medical historian Henry Ellenberger found out Ellenberger HF The story of “Anna O”: A critical review with new data. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. , that there is no improvement in the condition of “Anna O.” Did not happen. That is, the very first case of cure using psychoanalysis actually turned out to be a fake. Subsequent studies established Rutkevich A. M. How Freud adjusted the facts to his theory. Psychoanalysis. Origins and first stages of development: Course of lectures. M. 1997. that Breuer stuffed the patient with morphine and chloral hydrate, ultimately making her a drug addict. Because of this, she spent another three years recovering from the consequences of “catharsis.”

Today it is known that “Anna O.” suffered Borsch-Jakobsen M. Souvenirs d'Anna O. Une mystification, centenaire. Paris. 1995. from dental disease. Freud’s own patient, “Cecilia M.”, also had the same illness. (Anna von Lieben), whom he persistently diagnosed as hysterical neurosis. It is also worth mentioning here the illustrative case of “Dora” (Ida Bauer). Freud believed that her pain was associated with nervous experiences, although in fact Ida was tormented by rectal cancer.

There are also subjective factors McLeod S. Psychoanalysis. Simply Psychology. , which make it difficult to determine whether psychoanalytic therapy is effective or not.

It requires a lot of time, money and motivation and does not guarantee a quick “recovery”.
During sessions, a person can reveal repressed painful memories, which will cause him even greater suffering.
Psychoanalysis is not suitable for all people and not all illnesses.

However, there is Safran JD Psychoanalysis Today. Psychology Today. and the opposite point of view. For example, Canadian-American psychologist Jeremy Safran believes that some methods of psychoanalysis in conjunction with modern research have proven effective. And the American Psychological Association includes Psychoanalysis. APA. psychoanalysis is among its recognized practices and areas of specialist training.

Alternatives

Alternatives to psychoanalysis include cognitive behavioral psychotherapy, art therapy, Jungian analytical psychotherapy, behaviorism, Gestalt therapy, logotherapy, positive psychotherapy, psychodrama, body-oriented psychotherapy, Ericksonian hypnosis. All this, like psychoanalysis, methods of psychotherapy. They cannot fully replace each other, because these are completely different directions, but they have the same goal - to help a person realize the internal problem and get rid of it.