Materials on the psychology of communication on the topic: “Types and means of communication”

Means of communication are techniques for encoding, transforming and decoding information transmitted during communication interaction. Communication means are divided into two large blocks: speech and non-speech blocks, i.e. verbal and non-verbal means of communication. Speech is the process of using language for the purpose of communication interactions between individuals. Language is a sign system, the main function of which is to ensure communication between people, thinking, and a method of expressing an individual’s self-awareness. Speech as a method of verbal communication acts simultaneously as a source of information and a method of influencing communication partners.

How do people communicate with each other?

Communication is carried out using verbal and non-verbal means.
Of course, people communicate with each other directly and use language and speech for this, as well as signals transmitted by our body, in particular, the voice and its intonation, movements of the hands, fingers, and body posture. With the development of information technology, people can communicate while being far away from each other, both in real time and when it is convenient for them. In addition, communication between people can occur indirectly thanks to, for example, sheets, books, drawings.

Persuasive communication model.

This model allows you to make communication participants like-minded people and get out of a particular situation with the greatest productivity. However, the conviction

is a complex communication process, and not everyone is able to use this communication model with maximum effectiveness.

It is known that persuasion was formalized as a specific concept more than two thousand years ago by the Greeks, who made rhetoric

(from the gr. rhetorikos - beautiful, pompous, but little content speech) - the art of using speech effectively and convincingly - part of your educational system. Aristotle was the first to introduce the concepts of ethos, logos, and pathos, which roughly translate to "reliability of sources," "logical argument," and "emotional appeal." All of these are necessary components of a persuasive communication model.

Belief

is a communicative process in which a communicator attempts to bring about a change in the beliefs, attitudes or behavior of another individual or group of individuals through the transmission of a message in a context where the person being persuaded has some degree of freedom of choice. The literature describes the basic principles that influence persuasion. Among them, oral, positive messages, restrained emotional appeals, logical conclusions based on facts and compelling arguments, satisfaction of altruistic human needs, oratory skills are preferred.

The most difficult task of persuasion is to turn opposing opinions about certain actions or decisions into coinciding ones. People make generalizations based on personal experience and what members of their group tell them. Persuasion occurs much easier if the message is compatible with the general position in relation to a particular subject, situation, or problem. The easiest form of persuasion is communication that reinforces favorable opinions and positions. Each participant in communication needs to make continuous efforts to maintain a reserve of goodwill and thus proactively create conditions for effective joint activities.

Belief

- This is also a method of influencing the consciousness of an individual through appealing to his own critical judgment. In order to convince professional partners and colleagues, whose intelligence is usually highly developed, of something, participants in communication need to use special communication techniques. The result of persuasion is considered successful when the interlocutor is able to independently justify his decision or opinion, evaluate its positive and negative aspects, as well as the possibilities and consequences of other options and decisions.

In the process of communication, it should be remembered that persuasion as a communication technique is more convincing and effective in the following situations: - within the framework of one need; - with low intensity of emotions; - with an intellectually developed partner.

By what means did they communicate?

The German used words, and the Hungarian used gestures and body movements. Both one means of communication and the second occupy a lot of space in our lives.

What means of communication do people prefer? There is a Scandinavian saga about communication, which was retold by academician A.A. Beletsky. It tells how one day a dispute took place between a sage theologian and a Viking eye. The theologian showed one finger, to which the one-eyed Viking responded. showing two fingers.

The theologian showed three fingers, after which the Viking showed his fist, then the theologian ate the cherry and spat out the pit. The Viking found a gooseberry in his pocket and ate it.

Here the theologian admitted defeat. “What were you arguing about?” — The jury members asked the theologian. “I showed one finger, indicating that there is only one God in the world. He objected with two fingers, besides God the Father, there is also God the Son. I then showed three fingers, meaning that to be precise, there is also the Holy Spirit. To this he showed his fist, answering that the Trinity is still one.

I felt that I could not defeat him in theology, and changed the topic of the debate.

After eating the cherry, I said that life is sweet. But even here he answered me very aptly: having eaten gooseberries, he confirmed that one must live even when life is sour, “What were you arguing about? “They asked the one-eyed Viking. “I didn’t even think of arguing with him on theological topics. This impudent person showed that I have one eye. I told him that my one eye is worth his two.

He continued: he and I together have three eyes. After that, I said that impudent people like him should be taught not with scientific disputes, but with the fist. So I ate gooseberries to show that his life after this would be sour.”

Description of communication models

The structure of communication determines the patterns of communication. Some people are more sociable, love to be in company and can talk for hours about nothing, while others are closed, prefer internal dialogues to external ones, talk little and only about business.

Sociability as a character trait develops, you can improve communication skills, the ability to objectively perceive people and interact effectively with them.

Communication patterns, as a rule, are formed in childhood or adopted from parents. Also, communication patterns can be determined by the specifics of the position held and even be a sign of professional deformation of the individual (for example, a teacher communicates with relatives, as well as with students).

COMMUNICATION MODELS:

"Mont Blanc". Aloof, cold interlocutor

He focuses on the communicative side of interaction; he is not interested in interactions. "Chinese Wall". A person who considers himself higher and more significant than others

Perceives others as less successful/beautiful/smart people, which makes it difficult to interact with him. "Locator". A person who chooses a narrow circle of friends. Often one loved one or close friend is enough for him. "Grouse". A very uncommunicative person who creates only the appearance of communication and interaction. At the same time, the structure of Teterev’s internal communication with himself is preserved and oversaturated with dialogues and introspection. "Hamlet". Social perception is extremely important for this type of communication model. He tries to make the best impression, which is why he often plays to the audience. "Robot". This person talks and acts “dryly”, unemotionally, always knows what, when and why to do or not to do. "Egoist". A person speaks only about himself, all his actions are aimed at obtaining personal gain. "Ally". The best form and type of communication, as it is two-way. The interlocutors are interested in productive interaction, take into account personality, strive to understand each other and come to an agreement.

From this saga it is clear that gestures allow for ambiguity in the interpretation of the message.

Only audible human speech makes it possible to express an opinion as clearly as possible and accurately and adequately perceive it. This advantage of sound speech was pointed out by M.V. Lomonosov, adding that communication with gestures is possible only at close range and only during daylight hours [21].

As we can see, communication occurs through various means. The means of communication refers to how a person realizes the content and goals of communication. There are verbal (speech, verbal) communication and nonverbal (non-verbal).

The means of verbal communication is language, non-verbal - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, intonation, pauses, the system of “eye contact”. This means of communication is less known to us, but it is of great importance. As a rule, in life we ​​use verbal (linguistic) and non-verbal means of communication in unity.

Often, on an unconscious level, we guide our language with gestures and facial expressions so that the words are bright, more sincere and convincing. Sometimes verbal and nonverbal means are used separately from each other, but people understand them and interact with each other thanks to this.

Recently, due to the spread of computer networks and the advent of the Internet, people have begun to talk about virtual communication. People can also communicate using various symbols, objects, etc.

The selection of means of communication depends on the general culture of a person, his knowledge of the psychological mechanisms of communication and the ability to use them.

1. Verbal communication
2. Non-verbal communication
3. virtual communication
4. Indirect communication

Source: Kishkel E.N. Managerial psychology

Communication techniques

For formal communication, when there is no need to understand and take into account the personal qualities of a partner, they use the usual politeness, indifference, severity or other “masks”.

In primitive communication, they determine the need and usefulness of the interlocutor, and whether it is worth contacting him.

For business communication, the interest at stake is put first, not the character of the person.

For spiritual and interpersonal interaction, when friends communicate, any topic is touched upon. Words, intonations, gestures, and facial expressions play a role here.

Manipulative communication is characterized by the benefit that one tries to obtain from another through flattery, deception, intimidation and other similar actions.

In social communication, it is customary to say not what a person thinks, but what the rules of small talk require.

After establishing the motives for interaction, the purpose of communication is determined, so the content of the contact is important. When skills, abilities and actions are exchanged, we are talking about active communication. When needs, motivations and interests are affected, they talk about motivational contact. For conditional communication, the main thing is the exchange of physiological and mental states. Knowledge is transferred through cognitive communication. If objects and products are involved, we are talking about material interaction.

In pursuit of goals, communication is divided into social contact to expand and strengthen interpersonal connections and biological contact to maintain and develop the body.

The following types are determined by communication channels:

• Non-verbal communication is characterized by communication with gestures and facial expressions;
• verbal communication requires speech;
• artificial communication is helped by symbols, tattoos, amulets with meaning, as well as the media and telephones.

The structure of speech (verbal) communication is:

1. Meaning and meaning of words, phrases. An important role is played by the accuracy of the use of the word, its accessibility and expressiveness. Phrases must be constructed correctly and be intelligible to the listener. Sounds and words must be pronounced correctly; intonation should be expressive and correspond to the meaning of what was said.
2. Speech sound phenomena: speech rate (fast, medium, slow); voice pitch modulation (smooth, sharp); voice tone (high, low); rhythm of speech (uniform, intermittent); voice timbre (rolling, hoarse, creaky); intonation, diction of speech. Observations show that the most attractive in communication is calm, smooth, even speech.
3. Expressive voice qualities. These include characteristic specific sounds that arise during communication: laughter, chuckles, sighs, whispers, crying; separating sounds - coughing, sneezing; zero sounds - pauses; sounds of nasalization - “uh-uh”, “hmm-hmm”, etc.

However, words, sounds and intonations in a person’s daily communication account for (according to research) only 45%, and the remaining 55% comes from non-speech interaction.

Components of communication and its varieties

Components of communication are those components that are not included in the structure of communication.

These include:

• target,
• facilities,
• subjects (participants of interaction),
• type of connection between subjects,
• style,
• tactics,
• techniques, methods,
• result.

Depending on the components, various types and forms of communication are distinguished:

• emotional – exchange of emotions;
• cognitive – knowledge sharing;
• activity - exchange of skills and abilities;
• motivational – exchange of desires and goals;
• material – exchange of objects or products.

Types of social interaction can be defined as its levels. Level – certain behavioral manifestations of a personality that allow us to draw conclusions about a person and the ways of his interaction with other people. The types and levels of communication change as it becomes more complex from simple, primitive to complex, spiritual.

Nonverbal means of communication are studied by various sciences:

1. Kinestics - studies the external manifestations of human feelings and emotions, which include: facial expressions (studies the movement of facial muscles); gestures (studies gestural movements of individual parts of the body); pantomime (studies the motor skills of the whole body - posture, posture, gait, bows);
2. Takesika - studies touch in a communication situation (handshakes, kisses, touching, stroking, pushing, etc.);
3. Proxemics - studies the location of people in space when communicating.

In human contact, the following distance zones : 1. Intimate zone (15-45 cm from each other), close, well-known people are allowed into it. This zone is characterized by trust, a quiet voice in communication, and touch. Premature intrusion into the intimate area of ​​strangers during communication is perceived by the interlocutor as an attack on his integrity. Research shows that a violation of the intimate zone entails some physiological changes in the human body: the heart beats faster, the secretion of adrenaline increases, there is a rush of blood to the head, etc. Recently, many publications have appeared on the effects of the biofields of all living things on people, including number of people on top of each other. However, much about such effects is not proven by science; 2. Personal or personal zone (42-120 cm) - for casual conversation with friends and colleagues, involving only visual contact between partners and participants in the conversation; 3. Social zone (120-400 cm) - usually observed during official meetings in offices, office premises, as a rule, with those who are not known well enough; 4. Public zone (over 400 cm) - must be observed when communicating with a large group of people: in a lecture hall, at rallies, etc.

Facial expressions are the movement of facial muscles that reflect a person’s internal emotional state. It can give true information about what a person is experiencing. Facial expressions carry up to 70% of information about a person. A person's eyes, gaze, and face can tell more than spoken words. So, for example, a person trying to hide information (or giving false information) tries to turn away and not meet the eyes of the interlocutor. It is noticed that in such cases he looks directly into his partner’s eyes for less than 1/3 of the conversation time.

According to its specificity, the gaze can be: businesslike (fixed in the forehead area of ​​the interlocutor); secular (the gaze drops below the level of the interlocutor’s eyes, to the level of his lips) contributes to the creation of relaxed social communication; intimate (the gaze is directed not at the interlocutor’s eyes, but at other parts of the body up to chest level) indicates the interlocutor’s greater interest in communication; a sideways glance indicates a critical or suspicious attitude towards the interlocutor.

Individual parts of the body - forehead, eyebrows, mouth, nose, eyes, chin - express the basic emotions of a person: suffering, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, joy, happiness, etc. Positive emotions are easier to recognize than negative ones. The main cognitive load in determining a person’s true feelings is carried by eyebrows and lips. It has been proven that the left side of the face more often reveals a person’s emotions, since the right hemisphere of the brain, which controls a person’s emotional life, is responsible for the left side of the face. Positive emotions are reflected on both halves of the face more or less evenly, while negative emotions are more pronounced on the left.

Gestures in communication carry a lot of information. In sign language, just like in speech, there are words and sentences. The huge variety of gestures can be divided into five groups:

1. Illustrative gestures (message gestures) - pointing, depicting a picture using hands and body movements, go-ahead gestures; hand movements connecting imaginary objects together.
2. Regulatory gestures (gestures expressing the speaker’s attitude towards something) - smile, nod, direction of gaze, purposeful movements of the hands.
3. Emblem gestures (substitutes for words or phrases in communication), for example, hands clenched together in the manner of a handshake at chest level mean “hello,” and hands clenched and raised above the head mean “goodbye.”
4. Adapter gestures (hand movements associated with human habits) - scratching, twitching, touching, stroking, fiddling with objects at hand.
5. Affector gestures (gestures expressing certain emotions through the movement of the body and facial muscles) - a hunched figure with a sluggish, stumbling gait, face down; flying gait with head held high, etc.

There are also many microgestures: blushing of the cheeks, movement of the eyes, twitching of the lips, increasing the number of eye blinks per minute.

Most often when communicating, the following types of gestures appear, belonging to different groups :

1. assessment gestures (scratching the chin, extending the index finger along the cheek, standing up, walking, etc.);
2. gestures of confidence (swinging on a chair, connecting your fingers into a pyramid dome);
3. gestures of nervousness and uncertainty (tapping fingers on the table, interlocking fingers, stooping);
4. gestures of denial (arms folded on the chest, body tilted back);
5. positioning gestures (putting a hand to the chest, intermittently touching the interlocutor);
6. gestures of dominance (exposing thumbs, sharp strokes from top to bottom, long gaze into the eyes of the interlocutor);
7. gestures of insincerity (running glance, turning the body away from the interlocutor, touching the nose as a disguised form of covering the mouth, etc.).

The ability to notice, understand and interpret people’s gestures, as well as draw appropriate conclusions, allows you to better understand people and navigate the external environment.

Question 3. Communicative information side of communication. Communication process model

The information side of communication, i.e.

law enforcement officers attach particular importance to the transmission and receipt of information, as evidenced by the fact that 2/3 of the surveyed practical workers, as well as cadets and students of the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, when asked what they understand by communication, noted the importance of information exchange . The importance of operational information cannot be overestimated. Information exchange is relevant for the investigator, and for the detective, and for an employee of any police unit who, in the course of their official activities, establish the causes and circumstances of offenses, the motives for criminal activity, solve practical, educational problems and many others.

In the process of activity, people exchange various perceptions, interests, ideas, emotions, etc. Moreover, everyone strives to be correctly understood, wanting to receive from a partner a certain confirmation, a response to the information transmitted to him. The process of transferring information from one partner to another (or others) is not one-sided; it is always a relationship between people communicating, where the element of “feedback” plays a very important role.

In the “Who” scheme - the communicator, i.e. the person sending information; “What” is the content, the information itself; “To” - communication partner who receives information; “Effect” shows the effectiveness of communication, as understood by the communicator, and signals him about feedback. However, in order for this scheme to “work”, it is necessary for partners to use common communication tools: a system of signs, understanding situations, etc.

In essence, Code + Contact are tools of communication, means of transmitting information. The code consists of signs (symbols) and languages. There are different signs - genetic, chemical, thermal, road, etc. Human signs are of an extremely abstract nature and are conventional in nature. The system of signs is organized into languages: verbal language (sound, verbal), facial language, intonation, topomimic (gestures), written, etc. For effective communication, several sign systems are often used in parallel; in this way, reliable information transmission is achieved. Unconvincing acting on stage indicates improper use, for example, of verbal and facial language.

Learning signs (and languages) occurs in the first years of human life. There are phenomenal cases of proficiency in 12 languages. The wider a person's vocabulary, the greater his thinking and conceptual abilities. Context is the meaning field of a word. In different texts (and in different intonations), the same word can change its meaning. Depending on the social sphere and psychological characteristics of a person, differences are noted in the level and forms of his communication, the completeness and depth of mutual understanding with other people. In any given communication situation, we always learn something from our partner and communicate something to him. The content of a specific communication can be very different: an order from a boss, a call to wash your hands before eating, an interrogation of the accused, a conversation with witnesses, victims, etc. Whatever it is, it is always communication, and it is impossible to imagine communication without it.

The interactive side of communication

Source: Andreeva I.V., Social psychology

The interactive side of communication is a conventional term denoting the characteristics of the components of communication associated with the interaction of people and the direct organization of their joint activities. The goals of communication reflect the needs of joint activities of people. Communication should always involve some result - a change in the behavior and activities of other people. Here communication acts as interpersonal interaction, i.e. a set of connections and mutual influence of people that develop in their joint activities. Interpersonal interaction is a sequence of people’s reactions to each other’s actions unfolded over time: the action of individual A, which changes the behavior of individual B, causes responses from the latter, which, in turn, affect the behavior of A.

The interactive side of communication examines the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities.

A special direction has emerged in social psychology, where the interactive side of communication is taken as the starting point of any socio-psychological analysis. This direction - symbolic interactionism - is associated with the name of G. Mead.

Clarifying the social nature of the human “I,” Mead came to the conclusion that the formation of the “I” occurs in communication situations, which are understood not as a set of people’s reactions to each other’s opinions, but as a joint activity. In the process of joint activity, a personality is formed, becoming aware of oneself, and not just looking at other people as in a mirror, but acting together with them.

K. Thomas and R. Kilmenn wrote about the possibilities and typology of joint activities, identifying the following five main styles of behavior in a conflict situation:

• adaptation, compliance;
• evasion;
• competition, confrontation;
• cooperation;
• compromise.

The classification was based on two independent parameters:

1. The degree to which one’s own interests are realized and one’s goals are achieved.
2. A measure in which the interests of the other party are taken into account and realized. If we present this in graphical form, we get the Thomas-Kilmann grid (see diagram), which allows us to analyze a specific conflict and choose a rational form of behavior.

Behavior styles

Evasion (avoidance, withdrawal). This form of behavior is chosen when an individual does not want to defend his rights, cooperate to develop a solution, refrains from expressing his position, and avoids arguing. This style suggests a tendency to avoid responsibility for decisions. This behavior is possible if the outcome of the conflict is not particularly important for the individual, or if the situation is too complex and resolving the conflict will require a lot of effort from its participants, or the individual does not have enough power to resolve the conflict in his favor.

Competition (confrontation) is characterized by an individual’s active struggle for his interests, the use of all means available to him to achieve the goals of power, coercion, and other means of putting pressure on opponents, and the use of other participants’ dependence on him. The situation is perceived by the individual as extremely significant for him, as a matter of victory or defeat: a tough position towards opponents and irreconcilable antagonism towards other participants in the conflict are assumed if they resist.

Adaptation (compliance). The actions of an individual are aimed at maintaining or restoring favorable relations with an opponent by smoothing out disagreements at the expense of their own interests. This approach is possible when the individual’s contribution is not too great or when the subject of disagreement is more significant for the opponent than for the individual. This behavior in conflict is used if the situation is not particularly significant, if it is more important to maintain good relations with the opponent than to defend one’s own interests, if the individual has little chance of winning, little power.

Cooperation means that an individual is active in searching for a solution that satisfies all participants in the interaction, but does not forget his own interests. An open exchange of views and the interest of all parties to the conflict in developing a common solution are assumed. This form requires positive work and participation from all parties. If opponents have time, and solving the problem is important for everyone, then with this approach, a comprehensive discussion of the issue, the disagreements that have arisen, and the development of a common solution while respecting the interests of all participants are possible.

In a compromise, the actions of the participants are aimed at finding a solution through mutual concessions, at developing an intermediate solution that suits both parties, in which no one particularly wins, but no one loses either. This style of behavior is applicable provided that the opponents have the same power, have mutually exclusive interests, they do not have a large reserve of time to find a better solution, and they are satisfied with an intermediate solution for a certain period of time.

In competition and cooperation, confrontation is a necessary condition for developing a solution. Considering that when resolving a conflict, it is assumed that the causes that gave rise to it are eliminated, we can conclude: only a style of cooperation will help to fully realize this task. When avoiding and adapting, the resolution of the conflict is postponed, and the conflict itself becomes hidden. Compromise can only bring a partial resolution of conflict interaction, since a fairly large area of ​​mutual concessions remains, and the causes have not been completely eliminated.

In some cases, it is believed that confrontation within reasonable, controlled limits is more productive in terms of conflict resolution than smoothing, avoidance, and even compromise, although not all experts adhere to this statement. At the same time, the question arises about the cost of victory and what constitutes defeat for the other side. These are extremely difficult issues in conflict management, since it is important that defeat does not become the basis for the formation of new conflicts and does not lead to an expansion of the zone of conflict interaction.

The ideal strategy is to finally resolve the conflict, the essence of which is to find and eliminate its causes within the framework of voluntary cooperation of the parties. This strategy benefits everyone. First, it turns opponents into partners. Secondly, the problem is not driven deeper, but ceases to exist altogether. Third, the benefits gained by the parties exceed those that could be obtained with any other strategy. This strategy is based on treating conflict as a normal phenomenon.

Communication. Types of communication

Olga Alimova

Communication. Types of communication

Communication problems have always been relevant, but today they are increasingly becoming a special subject of research. Such attention to the problems of communication is not at all accidental: communication permeates essentially all aspects of society and human , it begins to be recognized both as a value and as a “blind spot”

many humanities.
Increasingly, there is an awareness of the fact that the “private”
problem of
communication is becoming increasingly important in the modern world, and the solution to many, many vital human problems and even partly the future of culture and civilization largely depends on the fruitfulness of its solution in theory and practice. It's no secret that communication is an important part of doing business. We regularly communicate with colleagues, bosses, children, and parents. Through communication we find out their needs , show ourselves, present our results. Business communication is definitely an art in which a sense of tact and a sense of contact with a partner plays a significant role. At the same time, certain techniques and developments have already appeared that recommend how to express your thoughts correctly and clearly. Which words are best suited to the chosen topic. In what cases should you focus on your partner’s personality, and in what cases should you focus on his activities? There is practically no period in a person’s life when he is out of communication . We have to communicate in writing and orally, in person and by telephone. Each type of communication has its own techniques and methods.
Purpose of the work: to consider the basics of communication : its structure, concept, essence, types .

1. General characteristics of communication , its functions, structure and means

Communication is the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, which is generated by the needs for joint activities. In Russian psychology, communication is understood in inextricable unity with activity. Communication is a reality of human relations that presupposes any types of communication as specific forms of joint activity of people.

At the same time, in Russian psychology there is another approach to understanding the category of communication . According to this approach, communication is understood as subject-subject interaction. In general, it is recognized that any activity always directly or indirectly includes subject-subject relationships, and the process of communication is determined by the subject, for example, the subject of conversation (B. F. Lomov)

.

In the process of communication , information is exchanged, its interpretation, mutual perception, mutual understanding, mutual assessment, empathy, the formation of likes and dislikes, psychological influence, the implementation of regulation of joint activities, etc. The specificity of communication is that in its process there is a mutual disclosure of the subjective worlds of partners. In communication , partners self-determine and self-present.

When studying the structure of communication , three levels of analysis are distinguished.

At the first level (macro level)

analysis considers
communication with other people as the most important aspect of his lifestyle. At the same time, social institutions , ethnic and family traditions and norms are analyzed.
This level is close to sociological research and is the main one when studying the direction of an individual’s activity, motivational sphere and interpersonal relationships. Second level of analysis (meso level)

involves the study of individual contacts that people enter into when they jointly solve a particular problem. At this level, the features of the dynamics of mental processes and human states are studied.

several phases during the period . The initial phase consists of the formation of common coordinates (reference images, reference points that determine the development of the further process, in relation to which the behavior of each of their communication communication process is formed , including the distribution of functions between its participants. This phase sets the general strategy of their behavior. The third phase consists of coordinating or synchronizing the temporal characteristics of mental processes and states. Also at this phase, a common fund of knowledge, skills and abilities is formed. Communication includes mutual management, control and correction. As a result of communication , either some commonality of participants, or their incompatibility and contradictions are discovered.

Third level of analysis (micro level)

includes the study of elementary units
of communication (associated acts of communication , including not only the actions of one person, but also the associated assistance or opposition of a partner). Analysis of speech communication allows us to identify simple types of cycles that form complex forms of interaction: message - attitude towards it ;
question answer; motivation to action - execution. The phenomenon of communication is monolithic and everything that defines it exists in an indissoluble unity, but researchers are still trying to isolate its individual elements. communication process how complex and diverse this phenomenon is. For example, psychologists distinguish cognitive, emotional and behavioral components in the structure of communication . B. D. Parygin identifies 3 parameters of communication :

•content and focus: communication can be identifying and isolating, promoting and opposing;

•form: verbal and non-verbal communication , direct, interpersonal and indirect;

• ways of connecting content and form in the process of communication : imitation, infection, persuasion.

G. M. Andreeva identifies three interconnected aspects of communication :

• the communicative side of communication - consists of the exchange of information between people, the transfer and reception of knowledge, opinions, feelings;

• the interactive side of communication - consists of organizing interaction between people, i.e. when participants in communication exchange not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. For example, you need to coordinate actions, distribute functions or influence the mood, behavior, beliefs of your interlocutor;

• the perceptual side of communication - which manifests itself through people’s perception, understanding and assessment of each other.

Communication is a multifunctional phenomenon. There are several classifications of its functions. B. F. Lomov identified three functions: information - communicative, regulatory - communicative and affective - communicative.

The first function is to transmit information. It assumes the presence of interacting subjects, one of which transmits information, and the other receives it.

The second function relates to the regulation of behavior. In the process of communication regulates not only his own behavior, but also the behavior of other people, and also experiences influence from them. This function is mainly implemented in the mutual adjustment of the partners’ actions. Such phenomena as imitation, suggestion and persuasion are associated with the regulatory-communicative function.

The third function relates to the emotional sphere of a person. Human emotions arise and develop in conditions of communication . Communication can determine the level of emotional tension and emotional release. Often, a person’s very need for communication may arise in connection with the need to change his emotional state. In the process of communication , there is a change in the modality and intensity of emotional states, their mutual strengthening or weakening, the rapprochement of partners’ states or their polarization.

Functions such as people getting to know each other, organizing and managing joint activities, forming and developing interpersonal relationships, etc. are also highlighted. A. A. Brudny highlights the instrumental function of communication (necessary for the exchange of information in the process of management and joint work, syndicative (provides group cohesion, translational (necessary for training)

and self-expression.

According to the purpose of communication , the following functions are distinguished:

• contact (establishment of contact is assumed as a state of readiness to maintain a relationship, to receive and transmit a message );

• informational (exchange of messages , opinions, decisions)

;

• incentive (stimulating the partner’s activity to perform any actions)

;

• coordination (mutual orientation and coordination of actions within the framework of joint activities);

• understanding (understanding the meaning of the message , as well as the experiences and states of the partner);

• emotive (arousing the necessary emotional experiences in a partner, changing one’s own experiences and states, that is, exchanging emotions);

• establishing relationships (awareness and fixation of one’s place in the system of relationships and interpersonal connections);

• exerting influence (changing the partner’s state or behavior, his decisions and intentions)

.

Means of communication are behavioral manifestations that are addressed to the partner during communication . All means of communication are divided into two large groups: verbal (verbal)

and non-verbal.

Verbal and nonverbal communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities, including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person. Consequently, the main purpose of this process is for people to contact, search and find common ground with each other, interact with each other in the process of joint activities, so that they exchange information and strive to understand each other.

Verbal communication is the most studied type of human communication. In addition, this is the most universal way of transmitting thoughts.
A message created using any other sign system
“translated” into verbal human language Verbal means of communication are written and spoken language used as sign systems. Written speech is that which is taught in school and which is used to be considered a sign of a person’s education. Written speech is cumbersome and often contains cliches and bureaucracy. The advantages of written speech become decisive where accuracy and responsibility for every word are essential. To skillfully use written language, you need to enrich your vocabulary and be demanding about style.

Oral speech, which differs from written speech in a number of parameters, is not illiterate written speech, but independent speech with its own rules and even grammar. The main advantage of oral speech over written language is economy, i.e. fewer words are required to convey the same idea in oral speech. Savings are achieved through different word order, skipping ends and other parts of sentences. The disadvantages of verbal expression of thoughts are speech errors and ambiguity.

Nonverbal communication is communication without the use of speech and language, the only instrument of which is the human body. The transmission and reception of nonverbal information can be carried out both consciously and unconsciously. Nonverbal communication is also called nonverbal behavior.

The main means of nonverbal communication are posture , movements and gestures, facial expressions, gaze, voice characteristics and spatial behavior. Nonverbal methods of communication have both biological origin and are formed in culture. Some theories of the origin of language consider nonverbal communication as the ancient basis for the emergence of speech.

Nonverbal communication has fundamental differences from verbal communication and is characterized by the following:

• realized simultaneously through different senses (polysensory nature)

;

• evolutionary – historical antiquity (existed long before the appearance of speech)

;

• relative independence from the meaning of words;

• involuntary and subconscious;

• independence from language barriers;

• features of psychophysiological mechanisms of perception;

• features of acoustic coding means.

Nonverbal communication allows you to convey a wide range of information. Thus, with the help of non-verbal means, one can get an idea of ​​a person’s racial, national and social affiliation, physical and psychological state, emotional attitude of a person, psychological climate in a group, etc.

Nonverbal behavior makes it possible to obtain deep information about a person’s temperament, his energy, tendency to dominance, and self-esteem.

2. Types of communication

Types of communication are distinguished in accordance with the goals of communication , the subject of communication , the conditions in which communication , the subjects of communication , the means of communication and other criteria.

According to the nature of communication , i.e., according to the specific mental state and mood of the participants in the communication , B. D. Parygin identified such types as business and gaming, social-role and personality-oriented, spiritual and utilitarian, traditional and innovative communication .

A. A. Leontyev, when classifying types of communication, proceeded from the fact that communication is always carried out in the conditions of a sociocultural environment, a certain social community. Communication is always social in its essence, even when the purpose of communication is the satisfaction of biological needs.

A. A. Leontyev distinguishes three types of communication : socially oriented, subject-oriented (group)

and person-centered.
These types of communication differ , first of all, in their goals: performing functions in accordance with a social role, certain objective activities, interpersonal cognition and understanding of people.
Depending on the content, goals and means used, the following types of communication :

1. According to the content of the act of communication : material, cognitive, conditional, motivational, activity.

In the process of material communication , objects and products of activity are exchanged, in cognitive - exchange of knowledge, conditional - exchange of mental and physiological states, motivational - exchange of motives, goals, actions, interests, motives, needs, activity - exchange of actions, operations, skills. .

2. According to the purposes of communication, they distinguish : biological, social, spiritual.

Biological communication is a type of communication in which the biological needs necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism are satisfied. Social communication is a type of communication whose purpose is to expand and strengthen interpersonal contacts, establish and develop interpersonal relationships, and personal growth of the individual. Spiritual communication is a type of communication whose purpose is to satisfy the highest, spiritual needs of a person. There are as many private goals of communication as there are subtypes of different human needs.

3. By means of communication there are : direct, indirect, direct, indirect, verbal, non-verbal.

Direct communication is a type of communication that is carried out using natural organs given to humans by nature (hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.)

.
Indirect communication is a type of communication that is carried out using special means and tools to organize communication and exchange information. Direct communication is a type of communication in which personal contacts and direct perception of those communicating with each other are carried out in the very act of communication . Indirect communication is a type of communication in which communication is carried out through other people acting as intermediaries. Verbal communication is a type of communication that uses primarily verbal means of communication . Nonverbal communication is a type of communication that uses predominantly nonverbal means of communication .
4. According to the types of social orientation of a person, they distinguish: social-role, personality-oriented, business.

Social-role communication is a type of communication in which its participants appear to each other as bearers of social roles, representatives of certain social groups. For example: nurse - patient. Their relationships are regulated by the rules of behavior established in society , which reflect their rights and responsibilities.

Personality-oriented is a type of communication , the goals and content of which are determined by the focus on understanding the personality of the communication . Participants in communication appear to each other as individuals, that is, they reveal to each other their intentions, motives, opinions, passions, individual characteristics, and attachments. The subject of person-oriented communication is the psychological problems of communicating people, their interests and needs. During this communication , the attention of those communicating is focused around problems that deeply affect a person’s personality: the problem of the meaning of life, determining one’s attitude towards a significant person, towards significant events occurring in life, etc.

Business communication is communication that is included as one of the elements in some kind of joint productive activity and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. The content of business communication is the content of activities that are performed jointly. The purpose of business communication is cooperation. It involves not only the use of ready-made communication that organize people to perform joint activities, but is also a condition for the development of thinking techniques and new forms of behavior.

Conclusion

Thus, we can conclude that communication acts as an interaction between people, a factor in personal development, a process of information exchange, a means of understanding another person, a means of satisfying needs.

Some social and economic transformations of modern society negatively affect the mental and personal development of modern children. The general trend of modern childhood is that adults ignore the specifics of preschool age and its special importance for the full development of the individual. In connection with changes in socio-cultural living conditions in recent decades, there has been a gap between generations of children and adults, a lack of emotional and meaningful relationships with parents, the collapse of children's communities , the active introduction of information technology into the everyday life of children, increasing the value of intelligence, etc. For a small child, television, a computer replace play, active productive activity, communication with close adults, having a negative impact on the development of the psyche and personality of the growing child. person.

The modern family is concerned about the early development of the child, the formation of physical health, and obtaining a prestigious education. Modern parents are raising an “individualist”

They strive for their children to be successful and to be able
to “achieve something in life themselves
.
However, parents do not take into account that individualism, as a person’s leading position in relation to society , prevents the child from learning to build harmonious relationships with people around him. Without understanding the other, without taking into account his interests and needs, joint activities and full communication with peers .

Language is considered the main means of human communication.

The purpose of language to be a mechanism of communication is called its communicative function. By interacting with each other, individuals transmit their own thoughts, worldviews, emotions and emotional disturbances, mutually influence each other in a certain direction, and achieve a common understanding. With the help of language, subjects of interpersonal interaction understand each other. It gives them the opportunity to establish collective work in all areas of human activity. Language is the force that determines the existence and development of individuals and society as a whole. And the communicative function is the leading social function of language. However, it is far from its only function. Its specialized functions include cognitive, expressive, nominative and accumulative.

The ability to express information, broadcast it and influence the interlocutor is called the expressive function of language. This function is considered as the unity of expression and transmission of data, feelings and emotional experiences, and the will of the speaker.

The cognitive function is interconnected with the presence of human consciousness in linguistic signs. Language is a unique instrument of consciousness that reflects the results of a person’s cognitive activity. Linguistic disputes about what comes first, mental activity or language, will probably never stop. The only correct judgment is the statement that language has an inextricable connection with thinking, since humanity not only expresses its own thoughts in words, but also thoughts are formulated in the form of words - a person thinks in words. The cognitive function of the psyche is intended to record the consequences of mental activity and apply them in communication. This function promotes knowledge of the world and its verbalization.

A person thinks using categories, and in the course of cognition, he discovers and names new phenomena and concepts for himself, which is the nominative function of language. It has a close connection with the cognitive, since everything known must necessarily have its own name. It also has a connection with the ability of linguistic signs to designate things. It is this ability that allows an individual to create a world of symbols. However, in the modern world there are many things that do not have names.

The accumulative function is closely related to the collection and storage of information. After all, it is no secret to anyone that language has existed much longer than people and people. A striking example of this is dead languages ​​that outlive their speakers. Language, regardless of whether it exists today or not, preserves the memory of generations and the centuries-old history of mankind. After all, even with the loss of oral speech, it is possible to master ancient writings and draw certain conclusions about the past life of a nation.

Language can also be spoken and written. The leading form of a language is its sound component. Unwritten languages ​​may also exist. When there is only written recording, and no voicing, then the language becomes dead.

What is communication

Joint activities establish and develop contacts in society through communication. This is either an independent process or accompanies other types of human actions. As a result of communication, in addition to the transfer of information, a unified interaction strategy is developed, the ability to perceive and understand partners. When communicating, the following are used for exchange: physical actions, products and results of labor, thoughts, intentions and ideas, experiences and other similar things. And also during communication there is an expression of feelings, emotions, assessments and attitudes towards the objects of communication. Communication with the author and characters occurs when reading a book, watching a play or film, giving a report, and during a telephone conversation.

Communication is a complex multi-level process of interpersonal or intergroup contact occurring in a society of people, which is generated by the needs of unified functioning.

Communication is also called two-way interaction between equal partners, which leads to mental contact - exchange of information, mutual influence and mutual experience.

The mechanism of communication consists of the exchange of actions and information, perception and understanding of each other. Communicative communications help the formation of personality, and interpersonal contacts help self-determination in a team.

Nonverbal communication

Our body language, compared to other verbal (speech) means of communication, is unique. If you imagine that it is he who carries from 60 to 80 percent of the information transmitted to the interlocutor, it is easy to understand the need to interpret this method of contact. If we want to be sure that we accurately understand a person, we must combine information from the body and verbal expressions into one overall picture.

Who among us has not encountered a feeling of vague anxiety when communicating with a person when he claimed one thing, but subconsciously you felt his falsehood. You will say that this is intuition and good for those who have it. In fact, it is easy to develop intuition by observing your interlocutor and, knowing the specific meaning of gestures, draw the right conclusions.

Topic 1.4. Types and levels of communication

Plan:

1. Types, levels and functions of communication
2. Sides of communication
3. Ways one person influences another

Concepts:

communication;
communicative, interactive ,
perceptual aspects of communication; kinesics, proxemics, prosody, paralinguistics, extralinguistics; gestures and postures, eye contact; non-verbal communication; identification, empathy and reflection; persuasion, infection, coercion, imitation.

Questions for discussion

:

1. Communication strategies: open - closed, personal - role-playing, monologue - dialogical.
2. Types of communication and their characteristics: “mask contact”, primitive, formal-role, business, spiritual or interpersonal, manipulative, secular communication.

Example of nonverbal communication

At one university, an experiment was conducted in psychology classes. The audience, which consisted of married couples, was divided into two groups by gender and was given video recordings of different versions of babies crying. Then they were asked to explain their meaning. Most women who had children accurately deciphered them (hunger, wet diapers, pain, etc.), while men did not see much difference in the crying options. This led to the conclusion that women, being more sensitive and observant, interpret non-verbal gestures more easily. It’s more difficult for men to do this; they need specifics, and not all sorts of sentimental experiences. Of course, there are exceptions.

This case also explains why it can be difficult for the stronger sex to tell a lie to his wife, who seems to read the real state of affairs in her eyes.

Characteristics of communication

Communication is viewed as a complex and capacious concept that explains how and why two people or a group interact. When communicating, interpersonal relationships are maintained and a common result of joint action is achieved.

People communicate in pursuit of a goal:

• transfer and receipt of subject knowledge about the structure of the world;
• agree on the correct actions of joint work;
• knowledge and education;
• establish or clarify personal and business relationships;
• satisfy cognitive, cultural, social, creative and other needs.

From a philosophical point of view, based on social theory, the social structure of society has evolved through dialectical interaction. There the fulfillment of personal attitudes, recognition of social norms and education of the individual by society take place.

Psychology explains communication as the main human need for self-education and transformation into a personality.

When people communicate, thoughts, feelings, as well as spiritual values ​​and personal meaning are involved, therefore communication is characterized by:

1. Recognition of rights.
2. The desire to achieve a goal.
3. Contacts without ratings.
4. Holistic perception.

When subjecting communication to analysis, attention is paid to three levels. At the macro level, a person communicates throughout life. This level is necessary for human mental development. At the mesa level, communication occurs in a specific time interval through purposeful, logically completed contacts, using ideas, perceptions, and experiences. Micro-level communication consists of questions and answers, a call to action and the implementation of this action.

The type of people communicating influences the style of communication, which is considered: friendly and businesslike, suppressive and reserved, flirting, demanding or positional style. Other styles are also available.

So, let's look at nonverbal means of communication.

To clearly understand their diverse structure, we present their classification:

1. Expressive movements (body posture, facial expressions, gestures, gait).
2. Tactile movements (handshake, pat on the back or shoulder, touching, kissing).
3. The gaze is visually contact (direction of gaze, its duration, frequency of contact).
4. Spatial movements (orientation, distance, placement at the table).

In this part of the article, we will dwell in detail on the first two groups of means of nonverbal communication and try to characterize their meaning. It should be remembered that interpreting a single gesture without the totality of other body signals means misleading yourself. Therefore, before drawing specific conclusions, you need to take into account all the nuances of the interlocutor’s behavior, as well as his physical and psychological state.

Openness

The interlocutor's hands are turned palms up and spread wide to the sides. The head is straight, the shoulders are straightened. The look is direct. The facial expression is natural, without tension or stiffness. This pose of friendliness, as a means of non-verbal communication, speaks of openness and sincerity. It is also indicated by shaking hands and clasping them with both hands. Men may unbutton their shirt or jacket while talking. When communicating with such a person, you involuntarily relax and feel trust in him.

Sympathy

In nonverbal communication, there is the concept of mental contact, which is expressed in the involuntary copying of each other’s gestures or entire behavior. A signal is sent to each other: “I understand you perfectly.” And indeed, if you take a look at a couple peacefully talking at a table, you will see similar poses, the same placement of hands, even mirroring. If you want to convince another person to unconditionally share his opinion, simply copy his body position.

If you observe the gait of a happy man in love, we will notice a flying gait, which is very noticeable. It is also typical for self-confident, energetic people. It seems that they don’t care about all the problems.

Deception

Have you probably seen someone hiding their hands during a conversation? It is likely that he is telling a lie, since the person’s brain subconsciously sends signals to the body and when a lie is told, a strong desire arises to put his hands in his pocket, scratch his nose, and rub his eyes. All these typical signs must be explained together to explain the meaning of nonverbal gestures. A person suffering from a runny nose can scratch their nose, a child who has just woken up can rub their eyes, etc.

Defense

Arms crossed on the chest, legs crossed in standing and sitting positions - a classic gesture of closedness and inaccessibility. Frequent blinking is a sign of protection and confusion. A person’s emotional status does not allow him to feel free and at ease. If you try to negotiate something with such an interlocutor, it is likely that you will receive a refusal.

Concentration

Expressed in pinching the bridge of the nose with closed eyes. When the person you are communicating with is deciding what to do or what to do, or generally thinking about solving a certain issue, he may be rubbing his chin at this time.

Criticality

If a person holds his hand to his chin, with his index finger stretched along his cheek, and with the other hand supports his elbow, his left eyebrow is lowered - you will understand that he has a negative assessment of what is happening.

Positivity

Interpreted as a slight tilt of the head forward and a light touch of the hand to the cheek. The body is tilted forward. Here is a person who is interested in what is happening and has a positive attitude towards information.

Mistrust

Have you probably noticed how some students cover their mouths with their palms while listening to a speaker? This gesture indicates disagreement with the lecturer's opinion. They seem to hold back their statements, suppress true feelings and experiences. If during a conversation your friend unexpectedly made a gesture of distrust, stop and think about what words caused such a reaction? By observing the behavior of the boss, the subordinate will understand what needs to be said and what it is better to remain silent about. Distrust quickly turns into rejection and then into refusal.

Uncertainty

A nonverbal gesture such as scratching or rubbing the back of the ear or neck may indicate that the person does not fully understand what you want from him or what you mean in the conversation. How to interpret such a gesture if you were told of complete understanding? Here preference should be given to the non-verbal body signal. In this case, the person did not understand anything. A hand clasping another’s elbow from behind also speaks of uncertainty; its owner is probably in unfamiliar company.

Boredom

The interlocutor props his head with his hand. It is clear that he is indifferent to what is happening. If he is sitting in the audience, we can say with confidence: the material presented by the lecturer is completely uninteresting.

Disapproval

Shaking off non-existent lint, straightening the folds of clothing, tugging at your skirt in non-verbal communication is a sign of your opponent’s disagreement with the point of view being expressed. You will quickly realize the need to switch to neutral topics. However, if a thread actually sticks to the sleeve of a jacket, or the clothing is wrinkled, this should not be regarded as a gesture of disapproval.

Structure of the course of communication

The structure of communication is understood as a complex of parts of the relationship process. This means that the structure of communication consists of subjects, means, needs, motivation and goals. And also from the ways of interactions, mutual influences and reflections of influence on the course of communication. In addition, the result is required.

Interpersonal communication consists of psychological feedback, communication barriers, communication influence and the method of transmitting information.

Stages of interaction:

1. A person's desire to communicate.
2. Determining the purpose of contact and the surrounding environment.
3. Recognizing your partner.
4. Modeling responses.
5. Choice of unconscious and conscious levels of contact.
6. Responding to feedback.

In psychology, the structure of interactions is characterized by communicative, interactive and perceptual directions.

Communicative influence consists of 2 types: authoritarian type and dialogic communication. With authoritarian influence, information comes from above, and response actions come from below. With the dialogical type, equal communication occurs with trust or distrust, and with the possibility of making mistakes.

If a person, transmitting and receiving information, understands another person, then contact has been established and maintained. If the structure of communication is disrupted, communication is of little use. When maintaining fruitful communication, this is social intelligence or communication skills.

Interactive interaction occurs with the transfer of actions. Taking into account the same basic states of communicating people, pairs of productive communication were made. A child with a child - both are active, emotional, playful or depressed. In a pair of adult with adult, existing reality comes first. When parents communicate with children, the former are critical, arrogant, condescending, worried, or display other similar feelings.

In perceptual communication, the main thing is to accurately form the first impression. This is influenced by the way the partner is perceived by the partner and the correctly established mutual understanding. Frequent errors of perception during the first contact - overestimation of quality. A person gives a positive assessment to a partner who is of a higher rank, otherwise underestimation occurs. Also, the highest rating was given to a partner who was liked by his appearance or attitude towards a person in communication. Opposite qualities naturally underestimate a person.

To correctly evaluate a participant in communication, you need to mentally take his place, understand his feelings and state. This mechanism is called empathy.

To properly build communication, it is worth considering the path and mechanism of action during interaction.